Glimpses of Life and Manners in Persia. (2024)

cruelty, abuse and sectarian violence

gender, ethnicity, class, religion

Kurds charging, with Kettle-drummers leading. FRONTISPIECE.

GLIMPSES
OF
LIFE AND MANNERS IN PERSIA.

BY LADY SHEIL.

WITH NOTES ON RUSSIA, KOORDS, TOORKOMANS,
NESTORIANS, KHIVA, AND PERSIA.

With Illustrations.

LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
1856.

The right of Translation is reserved.

LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET,
AND CHARING CROSS.

PREFACE.

SIR JOHN MALCOLM, Sir John M'Donald, Sir RobertPorter, Mr. Morier, and Mr. Fraser, have nearly exhausted the subject of Persia. The histories, the travels,and the novels of these distinguished writers have madethe world acquainted with the literature, the geography,the commerce, and the antiquities of that country. Thepresent volume is simply an attempt to describe themanners and the tone of feeling and society at the presentday. There seemed at one moment a prospect that Persia,would hold, as friend or foe, a prominent position beforethe English public. This anticipation led first to theproduction of these pages. Even now the altered aspectof political affairs may not perchance have deprived themof all interest.

The Notes attached to this volume are written by myhusband. There are in Persia many subjects not accessible to female inquiry; yet the absence of all allusionto them, even in a trifling production like this, would render these pages more incomplete than, it may be feared,they actually are.

CONTENTS.

ILLUSTRATIONS.

GLIMPSES
OF
LIFE AND MANNERS IN PERSIA.

CHAPTER I.

Motive for writing this book – Our party – Progress to Berlin – Encounter with the police – Russian railroads – Arrival inWarsaw – General Lamoricière – Death of the Grand DukeMichael – Etiquette in the Emperor's Park – Theatre at Warsaw– Masourka – Audience with the Emperor Nicholas – Jews inWarsaw.

A FEW years ago it fell to my lot to make a journey toPersia, and to reside there nearly four years. At thismoment, when public attention is so much directed to theEast, I have thought my recollections of the scenes Ihave visited may not be without interest to a few readers.One advantage I enjoyed over many preceding travellersin Persia. I have been able to see the anderoons orharams of the Shah and some of the principal personagesof his Court; and to judge, to a certain extent, with myown eyes, of the condition of women in that portion of theEast.

Circ*mstances over which we had no control forced usto pursue the distant route of Poland and Russia, which,however, was to me rather a matter of rejoicing thanotherwise, notwithstanding the fatigue and the prospectof climbing the Caucasus, perhaps in winter, as I knewthat in all probability our return to England would be bythe more usual road of Turkish Armenia, which shall bedescribed in its proper place. In this respect I must givemy meed of praise to Russia, for, bad as may be the landof the "Moscovs," it is, for a lady-traveller, far to bepreferred to Turkish Armenia. "The Lord deliver mefrom Sir Harry Vane!" might Cromwell exclaim; but Isay, "The Lord deliver me from Turkish Armenia, itssubterranean dwellings and their blinding smoke, withcows, buffaloes, sheep, goats, asses, horses, fleas, bugs,and other small deer unmentionable, for companions andcomrades!"

On the 7th of August, 1849, after avoiding a formalleave-taking–that dreariest and most painful mode ofseeking consolation at parting–we commenced ourjourney towards the land of the sun. We were a cumbrous party, consisting, besides my husband and myself,of three Irish and one French servant, and last, thoughfar from least, our inseparable companion and cherishedfriend Crab, who, by his endearing ways, solaced afterwards many a weary hour, but who, alas! was notdestined to revisit his native Scotland. He sleeps deepin the waters of Smyrna. 1

A railway journey through Germany offers nothingnew. Its tediousness is proverbial; and so special is thecare of life and the resolution to prevent a catastrophe,that not even was Crab permitted to travel in our carriage, which was attached to the train. A night's rest at Cologne; a view of the cathedral, which has occupied thepiety and contributions of Catholics for six hundred years,and which even yet is only a magnificent skeleton;an hour's hurried absence from the railway at Aix-la-Chapelle to see the tomb where Charlemagne reposes;another night's rest at the dear and bad hotel at Magdeburg, which all travellers should eschew,–and behold usat the sombre city of Berlin. Here we stayed a week toascertain the movements of the Russian Court, which hadpassed the summer in Warsaw, and was preparing toreturn to Russia, whither it then seemed likely we shouldbe obliged to proceed. The time was enlivened by anadventure which befell Crab and his master. Passingalong the most public street one morning, Colonel S—suddenly heard a yell from a voice he well knew, and,turning round, he saw Crab deposited under the arm ofa stout man, having all the appearance of a workman.Fully convinced that nothing less than robbery was intended, he rushed to the rescue, and seized the thief bythe throat, shouting with might and main the wholeextent of his German vocabulary, "Der Hund ist mein–der Hund ist mein!" The thief seemed astonished at theassault, and immediately, in the same manner, graspedhis assailant by the collar, but keeping fast hold of Crab,and calling loudly for help. In a moment a crowdassembled, and my husband found himself beset fromall sides. An uproarious brawl followed; some of thetownspeople seeming to support the foreigner, and othersabetting the thief, Colonel S— all the while gazinground in bewilderment, there being no one in the crowdwho could speak English or French. At length up camethe police in force and fear, thinking, no doubt, that 1848 was about to return. They made signals to ColonelS– to accompany them to the police-office, where aperson in authority pronounced Crab to have committeda heinous breach of the laws of Prussia in walking aboutthe streets of Berlin without having his name and addresslabelled to his neck, for which delinquency he was sentenced to immediate execution, unless he saved his lifeby paying a dollar to the supposed thief, who turned outto be a police-agent in disguise. As for Colonel S—,he was told he was the aggressor, and that he was toconsider himself lucky in escaping without further punishment. The Minister for Foreign Affairs sent him anapology, if it may be so termed, through our Chargé d'Affaires Mr. Howard, and an expression of regret atwhat had happened; but, as my husband said at thetime, if he were the guilty man, why should there be anapology? and, if he were not, why was not punishment inflicted on the persons, whoever they were, whohad joined in the row, and attacked him for trying tosave his dog from a thief? I must own I felt great indignation, but he treated the matter very lightly, saying itwas nothing but a street brawl, which might have happened to any one anywhere.

At length, at the end of August, we gladly continuedour journey. At the Polish frontier we passed the nightat a miserable inn in the village of Mitlowitz; a night ofdiscomfort, which gave one a foretaste of what we mightexpect farther on. There was but one small bed, andthe servants slept on benches covered with leather, andwithout blankets; this seeming to be the ordinary mannerof treating servants in Russia, where for them a stoveanswers the purpose of bed and blanket. Next morning,at an early hour, we resumed our seats on the Russianrailway. If in Germany this mode of travelling betedious in comparison with England–the tortoise to thehare–here it was infinitely worse, the tortoise had become a snail. The pace, although a fast train, did notexceed ten or twelve miles an hour, and we stopped everyten minutes to deliver letters, or else to refresh ourselveswith vodka–the eternal vodka–which name one hears asoften as "la goutte" in France, I think I recollect beingtold that the only fuel used on this railway is wood, whichperhaps is one reason why they go so slowly. But let medo justice to a Russian railway. If it is slow, it is safe.No "shocking catastrophe," no "awful collision," no"smashing," is heard of in that country. All is calm, deliberate, and safe, with a complete exemption from theagitation, nervousness, and excitement which the meresight of a railway produces in England.

Chi va piano, va sano;
Chi va forte, va alla morte,"

say the Italians, and the couplet seems to have beenwritten in anticipation of the locomotive character of therespective countries of Russia and England. In anotherparticular, too, does a Russian as well as a German railway excel that of England,–I mean the accommodationafforded to second-class travellers. This is really socomfortable that few persons, unless the highest and mostwealthy, make use of the first-class accommodation;while in England, with all our boasting of equality, &c.,the carriages seem to be contrived with such studious discomfort that people of moderate means are forced toundergo inconvenient expenses by travelling in the first-class carriage.

Our fellow-travellers were a wounded and rather discontented Russian general, two aides-de-camp of theEmperor Nicholas, and one of Marshal Prince Paskewitch, Viceroy of Poland, all returning from the war inHungary, which had just terminated. The latter werevery agreeable men, with excellent manners, like, I amtold, Russians in general of their rank. They spoke butlittle of the war, or of the scenes they had just quitted,and during the time we were in their company, politicsand every allusion to public events were carefully avoided;but music, the court, the opera, and such light subjectsthey discussed copiously and agreeably.

Late in the evening of September 1st, we reachedWarsaw, where we were most kindly received by the lateexcellent General Du Plat, then Consul-General in thatcity. With great difficulty we found apartments in anexecrable Polish inn, the only tolerable hotel being full,and occupied by General Lamoricière, who was thenEnvoy to the Emperor from the President Louis Napoleon. I had not the good fortune to make the acquaintance of this famous commander, whose exile from hisnative land is so much to be deplored at this moment.My husband, however, saw him more than once, andpreserves a pleasant recollection of a stout little man,full of resolution, energy, and life.

I have no agreeable remembrances of my sojourn inWarsaw. We were very uncomfortably lodged, and soill fed, that every day we were forced to go to a café toseek a dinner, and besides I was suffering from a severecold. Warsaw must always be an object of melancholyinterest from historical associations, and from being therepresentative of fallen greatness and blighted independence; but, to the mere cursory traveller, it presents fewmaterials for the indulgence of curiosity, unless it be theinterior of society, which my short stay gave me no opportunity of enjoying. Thus much I learned, that betweenthe Pole and the Russian there was a marked line, whichallowed of but little or no amalgamation between the tworaces, and that the Pole shrunk unbendingly from thesociety of his conquerors. The period of our visit toWarsaw was one of gloom and affliction to the Imperialfamily. The Grand Duke Michael, the Emperor'sbrother, towards whom he is said to have borne the tenderest regard and affection, was stretched on the bed ofgrievous illness, which soon was to become the bed ofdeath. His Imperial Highness died at Warsaw duringour stay in that city, and this event interrupted, ofcourse, the usual intercourse of society, and deprived meof an opportunity of seeing the Court or any portion ofthe Imperial family. Nearly every day while the GrandDuke lived, a notice used to be sent to the various foreignofficers in Warsaw, that a grand review was to be held inthe morning, at which the Emperor invited their attendance, and invariably during the night we were awakenedby an orderly bearing an announcement that, owing tothe condition of the Grand Duke, the review was postponed. I thus lost the sight of a fine military pageantof 50,000 or 60,000 men, headed by an Emperor inperson.

It was not among the Imperial household alone, thatthe angel of death had cast his dart. Mourning andgrief had also spread their veil of sorrow over the familyof the Emperor's trusty servant Count Nesselrode, whosewife had recently died, and who was living in seclusionwith his daughters. It was a disappointment to lose theoccasion I might otherwise have enjoyed, of seeing theveteran statesman who has for half a century borne soprominent a share in guiding the destinies of Russia, andmaterially influencing those of Europe. My husband,who saw the Grand Chancellor of Russia, as I believe he isnow styled, more than once, described him to be a man ofsmall stature, slight in figure, with a clever, intellectualcountenance, full of keenness and mobility, which oncemust have been handsome. His manners are said to bemost courteous and cordial. The Chancellor is presumedto be of German descent, like many other members of theRussian diplomatic service, among whom may be citedCount Pahlen, Baron Meyendorf, Baron Budberg, CountMedem, Count Alex. Medem, Baron Brunow, GeneralDu Hamel, &c.

We often strolled in the pretty park where the Emperor was residing, and which was open to the public.Whatever opinion may be entertained of his Majesty'scharacter on various points, he certainly possessed a fearless mind. In Moscow and Petersburg one can imaginehe might free himself from the trouble and annoyance ofwatching over the preservation of his life; but I was notprepared to see him equally unguarded, and heedless, inthe very heart of Polish enthusiasm and hate. Few or noguards were visible near the simple edifice which wasselected as the abode of the Emperor, who seemed to consider the prestige of his fame and dignity an invulnerablepanoply–as, in fact, it really appeared to be, no attempthaving ever been made in Warsaw against his life. Thetrees were decorated with coloured lamps in anticipationof a grand fête, destined never to take place, and whichwas put off from day to day, or rather from night to night,in vain anticipation of a favourable change in the GrandDuke's health. These decorations had a forlorn and sadappearance, I thought. The immediate vicinity of thePalace was surrounded by a pretty flower-garden, whichwe wished. to examine, but on entering it we were stoppedby the sentry at the gate, who made significant gesturesto my husband to remove his hat while walking beforethe palace, lest by some accident the Emperor might belooking out of the window, and his eyes might fall onsome one with his head covered! The "orgueil Britannique" of Colonel S— would not allow him to submitto a ceremonial, which seemed to savour too much of theImperial "middle kingdom," so he declined complianceand we went another way, not a little surprised at thedemand; but afterwards, while residing at a house ofPrince Woronzow's, at Vladi Kafkaz, we were still moresurprised to observe the soldiers saluting his house too asthey passed before the windows, he being at the time atOdessa; yet such was the etiquette.

Amid the general gloom of society, the theatre, duringthe early part of our residence, fortunately offered ussome resource. The scenery and decorations were excellent, the acting good and spirited, equal to the theatricalrepresentations one finds in a large provincial town inFrance. The audience was numerous and attentive,seeming to enjoy highly the comedy, which generallyformed the subject of the evening's entertainment; butwhich, being in Polish, was to us a sealed book. It wasthe Masourka, however, which drew forth unanimous andmost vociferous enthusiasm, particularly from the Russianofficers with whom the pit was crowded. Well was thisbeautiful national dance–truly beautiful as danced atWarsaw–entitled to all their boisterous and passionateapplause. The women engaged in the dance were alldressed in the becoming national costume; and oneyoung lady, remarkable above the others for her beauty,her elegant toilette, and the energy of her performance,which almost rivalled the vigour of a Sevillana stampingthe boleras, threw the house into a perfect tumult ofdelight. The men too were dressed in the costume ofPoland in the day of her independence and military renown–perhaps the garb of John Sobieski himself. Eachdancer wore the heavy long boots and spurs, and the ponderous sabre, without which the Polish noble never appeared in public. At every movement of the dance theysharply struck their boots and spurs together, as if beating time–converting the peaceful and graceful masourkaof our ball-rooms into a genuine war-dance, in which,with hand and foot, they were heartily joined by the Russian officers, who for the moment seemed to forget theirhatred of everything Polish.

Though both these Sclavonic languages are sprungfrom the same origin, the roughness of the Polish in comparison with Russian was very striking during the performance of the comedy. Russian seems to be the Italianof the Sclavonic tongues, and is really harmonious to theear. But in Polish organs of speech there appears toexist an incomprehensible faculty of enunciating at willany possible number of the most incongruous consonantswithout the intervention of a vowel. The Russian aide-de-camp told me that even to a Russian, with all hisorganic flexibility, and his power of acquiring languages,the pronunciation of Polish presented difficulties hardly tobe overcome.

Though I did not enjoy the honour of presentation tothe Emperor, it may be perhaps interesting that I shouldrecord here the impressions of my husband when hepaid his respects to his Imperial Majesty. After alighting at the palace, where only a single sentry was to beseen, he was shown into a room in which were two officers,one of whom was Marshal Paskewitch. He then passedinto another chamber, very simply furnished, where heremained, expecting an aide-de-camp to conduct him tothe Emperor's presence. Soon a tall, portly officer, veryplainly dressed in uniform, with remarkably small epaulettes, entered the room; and it was only after somemoments that my husband knew he was in the presenceof the descendant of Ruric, the mighty autocrat of allthe Russias. A shake of the hand, accompanied by a gracious smile of welcome, did not contribute to undeceivemy husband, who was not prepared for a reception sofar removed from state and formality. The Emperor remained standing during the audience, which lasted tenminutes; he was most gracious and affable. He condescended to express regret that Colonel S— should nothave come to his court at a more favourable moment,alluding to his "brother," to use his Majesty's own expression, whose condition, he said, was hopeless.

The dignity of the Emperor, with the mien of consciousgreatness and power accompanying every action and look,made a great impression on my husband, who remarked,however, that in his Majesty's eyes, which were large andprotruding, there was an air of restlessness, or even wildness, far from agreeable. The spirit as well as the bloodof Paul may have been in that majestic frame; for whatis unbounded pride but mental aberration?

This audience afforded an opportunity for observing,that even now the Russians have not forgotten theirEastern origin. Colonel S— being dressed in uniform,General Du Plat insisted on enveloping him in his largestcloak, as he would otherwise have been exposed to thederision of the Russian officers. In other countries soldiers are as fond as women of displaying their feathersand finery; but in Russia, an officer, the moment he putson his uniform, carefully hides himself under an enormousgrey coat, which his ancestors must have borrowed fromtheir Moghul conquerors. This reminds me of an anecdote I heard in Persia. At the negotiations which followed the conclusion of one of Persia's disastrous warswith Russia, the plenipotentiary of the latter countrythought fit to indulge in a little banter, at the expense ofPersian manners, morals, integrity, &c., in comparisonwith those of Europe. The Persian negotiator at lengthlost patience, and exclaimed, "Why do you talk so muchabout Europe, as if you Russians were Europeans?You put on a hat and trousers, and fancy yourselvesFeringhees; but what are you after all, but the descendants of the refuse of Batou Khan's army and hisMoghuls?"

Poland is said to be the paradise of the Jews; and,judging by their number, both in Warsaw and on our lineof road, even as far as Odessa, the sway of the Czarsappears to possess large attractions in their estimation.Every trade seems to be filled up by them, though theyhave not acquired a better reputation in their dealingsthan they possessed in England in former days. Innkeeping is one of their favourite employments–perhapsfrom the opportunity it affords for retaliating on the Gentile some of the numerous wrongs they have so long endured from him all over the world. But a brighter timeis no doubt approaching for the sons of Israel. If Francehas been first in rendering justice to that capacity for allthe arts and sciences which a distinguished writer claimsfor that race, we may trust that ere long in our owncountry the career to honour and distinction will be unreservedly laid open to their abilities. In the mean time,however, nothing can exceed the misery of their apparentcondition in Poland. They are dressed in rags, dirty intheir persons, and their whole appearance is disagreeable,if not revolting. Peter the Great is said to have objectedto the residence of the sons of Israel in his dominions,lest, thought that sagacious Czar, they should contaminatethe rectitude of the inhabitants of "Holy Russia" byteaching them chicanery and intrigue. The chief of thehouse of Romanoff had only an indistinct perception of thefaculties of his countrymen. We had some dealings witha few of this race before our departure from Warsaw, inwhich we were much defrauded.

At Warsaw we were regarded as persons going intoexile; and if we had bought all we were advised as indispensable, a large fourgon should also have been provided, to hold the beds, bedding, basons, tea-urns, saucepans, and various other domestic batteries. We did,however, purchase a stock of provisions to mitigate thefamine with which we were threatened on the road. Imay remark here, that the foregoing appurtenances areconsidered necessary by Russian families travelling intheir own country.

Despotic power is sometimes capricious. The Jewishladies in Poland have fallen under its influence in a mannerwhich has certainly contributed to improve their appearance. Formerly, when a girl was married, the customwas to shave her head completely, and she wore insteadof her own hair, a brown or black silk fillet. By an imperial ukase the Emperor has ordained, that the Jewishwomen shall not shave their heads, nor wear these veryunbecoming fillets.

In the church, on Sunday, I observed some countrygirls with wreaths of real flowers on their heads, whichhad not the effect of overcoming their natural plainness.The men wear robes like dressing-gowns; and I couldnot help laughing at the curious effect which a manploughing in a dressing-gown, produced. I afterwardsbecame accustomed to this style of garment, for it is wornall over the East.

¹ This was a Scotch terrier of great sagacity and most exemplary fidelity.

CHAPTER II.

Departure from Warsaw – Feldt Yäger – Russian post-houses – Gytomir – Kief – St. Sophia – Baptism in the Dnieper – Suspension bridge over the Dnieper – Progress to Odessa – Appearance ofthe people – Jewish Synagogue – Odessa – Prince Woronzow.

IT is time to leave Warsaw, where we have been detainedtoo long, and to commence our tedious journey to Odessa. The extreme kindness of Count Nesselrode had diminishedsome of its difficulties by assigning us a non-commissionedofficer of the Feldt Yäger (or Government Messenger) department, whose knowledge of languages, however, beingconfined to German and Russian, we were not only completely in his hands as far as our dealings with the peopleof the country were concerned, but we were hardly ableto communicate our wants and wishes. His presence certainly relieved us from embarrassment, for in Russia a Feldt Yäger is nearly as powerful at the post-houses asthe Czar himself His proper duty was to drive inadvance, furnished with his courierski padrojna, whichenabled him to claim horses for us, to the exclusion of allother travellers, even if they had been harnessed to theircarriages, and to prepare horses at the next stage. Hetravelled in an exceedingly light uncovered waggon, without springs, called a pavoska, drawn by three horsesabreast, of which the centre horse invariably trots, whilethe two others gallop. It is in this manner that the despatches of the Government are rapidly conveyed all overthe empire. The Russians will tell you that these couriersoften travel at the rate of more than 300 miles a day forten successive days, which must be one of the exaggerations in which Russians occasionally indulge. Be it as itmay, these couriers are indefatigable, and so great are thefatigues they endure in these shocking waggons, that fewamong them live to an advanced time of life; and moreover,being obliged to travel in all weathers, night and day, fairand foul, many perish in the snow. To them alone is conceded the cruel privilege of forcing the horses forward tillthey drop or die from fatigue. Our Feldt Yäger was notone of these reckless characters. On the contrary, heoften retarded our progress by feigning that the stableswere empty and no horses to be had, in the mean timeindulging himself in a sound sleep for some hours, indifferent to our impatience and to the subsequent detectionof his falsehood. At other times he would stealthily remain behind at night, leaving the Russian postilions tocrawl along as they pleased, and then join us rapidly nextmorning. In short, the benefit of his guidance was notwithout alloy.

The tendency to exaggeration alluded to above, as seenin many Russians, may, it seems to me, be traced to credulity as much is to any other source. I remember inPersia a Russian gentleman, of great gravity and holdinga high official appointment, who, when expatiating on thesagacity of the wolves in his country, used solemnly toassert, that they were accustomed to swallow a largequantity of earth to make themselves heavy preparatoryto seizing a cow by the tail. The weight of the earthadded to that of the wolf soon rendered the unsuspectingvictim a prey to the calculating marauder. This gentleman was a native of Little Russia, where they are said tohave a faith that ought to remove the Himalayas themselves.

We occupied five dreary days and nights in reachingKief, our road lying through immense plains, intermingledwith prodigious forests, and enlivened here and there withlarge tracts of cultivation, though with a scanty population, which in some of the villages, consisted entirely ofJews. Twice each day we stopped at the wretched post-houses to partake of the fare they afforded, which rarelyexceeds tea, eggs, and bread, diversified in Russia withthat detestable Muscovite concoction called stehee, whichis a broth composed of hot water, tallow, cabbage, andsalt. These places never contained beds; a bare floor, awooden bench without cushions, a few wooden chairs, weretheir sole attractions to a traveller. These humble accommodations were compensated by civility, cordiality, and acheerful alacrity to remedy every deficiency. Gytomir,half way between Warsaw and Kief, where we arrivedSeptember 27th, was to us an oasis in the desert. At thistown we found a bustling inn, where we were delighted torecruit ourselves with a dinner of welcome beefsteaks, oursingle meal for five days, and English porter, for whichbeverage the Russians entertain even more devotion thanour own countrymen. The merits of Meux, Barclay, andGuinness are as shrewdly scanned by them as those ofLafitte and Château Margaux, in a London dining-room.Five days and nights passed in a carriage, even with theadvantage of its being what our Irish servant called a"dormouse," were no small trial, and glad we were, tiredand travelworn, to get sight of the "Mother of Russiancities," as Kief from its antiquity is styled, situated on ahigh bank overlooking the Dnieper. Our Feldt Yägerexplained our slow progress by invectives against thePolish postilions, who were, he said, of violent temper, andwould not allow themselves to be flogged or abused. "Butwait," he continued, until we enter Russia, "and there Ican do as I please." He certainly kept his promise, bothwith whip and tongue.

We were most kindly received in Kief at the house ofMr. Vignolles, whose hospitality saved us from the vexation and discomforts of a Russian inn, not the least ofwhose miseries was the incessant conflict to be waged withthe bloodthirsty nomadic tribes which abound in Russiandormitories at that season of the year.

Fatigue had so overcome my strength, that I was gladto devote to repose, nearly the whole of the three days wespent at Kief; and I am ashamed to be obliged to confessto the indolence of not having seen its chief curiosity,the catacombs, where the remains of so many saints of theRussian calendar are laid. This city is to the Russo-Greek Church what Rome is to Catholics, and the Churchof St. Sophia (the oldest in Russia, it is said) is theRussian St. Peter's, though mighty is the difference. Itis a very picturesque building, or rather collection ofbuildings, and as rich as abundance of gilding both insideand out can make it. We were deeply gratified by thesolemn chanting of the Russian monks, which surpassed,in my opinion, in religious grandeur and effect, the elaborate and scientific psalmody of St. Peter's. At Moscow,and above all, St. Petersburg, the church music is described as magnificent–the exclusion of all other thanvocal music in the Greek Church having naturally directedall the efforts of the priesthood to excellence in this branchof harmony. The service was said to be in old Sclavonic,which is equally unintelligible to the people at large, asLatin to the majority in the Catholic Church. The samemeans of translated prayer-books adopted throughout theCatholic world, are probably taken in the Eastern Churchto remedy the inconvenience. We were informed that thegrand festivals of the Church are celebrated at Petersburg,Moscow, and Kief, with a gorgeousness far surpassing themost imposing solemnities at Rome. The appearance ofthe priests at Kief was deeply impressive. Their longlocks and venerable beards gave them an apostolic air,much at variance with our ideas of clerical propriety andsmoothness of face, at the present day.

Kief is said to have been a great city before the invasion of the Moghuls, by whom it was utterly destroyed.It was here, 800 years ago, that Vladimir the Great forcedthe whole population to embrace Christianity by baptizingthem by a simultaneous plunge in the Dnieper. Thepresent town, like every city in Russia, where land isabundant and population scanty, is spread over a largeextent. With the stately Dnieper flowing at its feet, theneighbouring hills, the forest and the steppe in the distance, the gilded domes of the churches glittering andsparkling on all sides, it scarcely justifies the uncourteousremark of the English Ambassador to Catherine theSecond, that the aspect of the city was detestable.

The Dnieper seems to be half a mile in width, oppositeto the city. Mr. Vignolles was employed in the arduousundertaking of building a splendid bridge over this fineriver, by a contract which he had concluded with theRussian Government. His operations had converted Kiefinto a small English colony, from the numerous artisanswhom Mr. Vignolles had brought from England to contribute their practical skill to his science. This monumentof distinguished English talent was not more than halfbuilt when we saw it. The great difficulty to be surmounted was the increased weight and rapidity of theDnieper in spring. Mr. Vignolles had suffered a heavyloss in the previous season. The melting snow and icehad filled the Dnieper, which rolled and rushed againstthe columns of the rising bridge with overwhelming fury,and in a moment 30,000l. were dissipated, and the labourand anxieties of two years scattered to the winds andwaves. Mr. Vignolles was full of confidence in his powerto baffle all the insurrections of the Dnieper, and I hearthat he has succeeded in accomplishing his arduous undertaking. Returning from inspecting Mr. Vignolles's curiousworks, we drove in a carriage over the Russian strangecontrivance for connecting the two banks of the Dnieper.This consisted of thick planks floating in the water, placedclosely side by side, like a raft, across the whole breadthof the river, and braced by bands of rope together. Ateach movement of the wheels and of the horses, theseplanks sank into the water, sometimes to an alarmingdepth; but though the passage looked hazardous, it wasfree from danger. Notwithstanding its size and volumeof water at Kief, it is to be lamented that this fine streamshould contribute so little to the wants of the daily increasing civilization of the tracts through which it rolls itscourse. Its cataracts, the shallows at its mouth, its shiftingsands, which change the passage from year to year, allconcur to render its navigation difficult and its commercecomparatively insignificant. At Mr. Vignolles's table, itwas more than once a subject of discussion among hisintelligent sons and assistants, whether the impedimentscaused by the cataracts could not be surmounted, amongother ways, by a canal conducted from above the falls.When the temple of Janus shall be happily closed, let ushope the sovereign of Russia may find leisure to solve thisproblem.

With the fear of the Caucasus before our eyes, andnervously anxious to anticipate a heavy fall of snow, wehastened to continue our journey. My husband hadfrightened me with a description of a passage of thesemountains during winter, which he had performed someyears before. The mountaineers had cut a passagethrough the snow exactly the breadth of the sledge, withthree fiery courier horses abreast. Above was a wall ofsnow several hundred feet high, and which the least gustof wind would bring down in an overwhelming avalanche,while on the outside, was a precipice many hundred feetdeep, and quite perpendicular, which the sledge partiallyoverhung. To add to his enjoyment of the sublimity ofthe scene, my husband had the satisfaction to find himselfseated on the outer side of the sledge, while the inner seatwas occupied by his servant. The cold was of such intensity that he saw, or thought he saw, the air in motion,dancing and jumping in the minutest and most brilliantparticles, which he said must have been the original indivisible atoms from which modern philosophy has framedthe universe. In passing by the spot afterwards, andseeing how terrible it was even in fine autumn weather, Irejoiced we had hurried on, in spite of fatigue, to escapethe snow.

If in Poland we were struck by a general air of povertyamounting to squalor, in Russia we were surprised tofind an appearance of comfort and the enjoyment of atleast the necessaries of life. Kief contained few or nobeggars; all, both in the city and in the country, seemedto have employment and to be comfortably clothed andfed. These remarks are applicable to the whole of theRussian dominions, in Europe at least, which came underour observation, and the effect is rendered more strikingby the immediate contrast with Poland. From whatcause does this difference arise? It cannot be owingapparently to the immense superabundance of soil inRussia over the population, for in Poland the inhabitantsare not numerous, nor is there a deficiency of land.

Soon after leaving Kief we entered on the steppe,which we traversed almost up to Odessa. Contrary tomy expectation, we found large tracts of meadow, andeven of tillage, though at distant intervals. In fact, instead of being a barren plain, as I had been led toimagine, the steppe may be described as a grassy level,or prairie, highly susceptible of cultivation, and coveredwith aromatic herbs in early summer. We were fourdays and nights on this part of our expedition, but thesevere experience of the journey from Warsaw had inuredus to hardship, and we travelled in comparative ease andcomfort, though without encountering any objects ofinterest. During a change of horses at a small town onthe Saturday we went into a Jewish synagogue, and werereceived with great civility. The congregation was numerous, the room crowded. beyond endurance, the odourintolerable, and the confusion great; the flock, both menand women, being intently engaged in the perusal ofthe Bible, which each person read aloud, perhaps each adifferent chapter. The heads of the men were covered,though, no doubt, their feet were bare.

At Odessa, where we arrived at the end of September,we had our first specimen of a Russian hotel, of which theless said the better, unless to exclaim with Dante, "Guardae passa." We however forgave a great deal of what wasdefective, disagreeable, and indecorous, on finding thatour landlord spoke Turkish, with which my husband waswell acquainted. This fortunate circ*mstance released usat once from the thraldom of the Feldt Yäger, from whichwe had suffered much vexation. Odessa being a moderncity, it contains few edifices of historic or traditional note.Like other Russian towns of recent construction, the streetsare wide and regular. The large number of new and excellent houses in preparation showed evident signs ofwealth and increasing commerce. We had the pleasureof forming here the acquaintance of Prince Woronzow;the Lieutenant of the Emperor, with nearly absoluteauthority over the immense tract reaching from thePruth to the Caspian. He is a man of great wealth,and has ever preserved a reputation for the highesthonour. In appearance and manners, he altogetherresembles an Englishman of the highest class, and theillusion is completed by the perfection with which hisHighness (for to that elevated title has he attained) speaksthe English language. He invited us to pass a day athis beautiful palace at Aloupka, in the Crimea, whitherhe was to proceed that day, while we were to follow in aRussian war steamer, to sail the ensuing morning withpassengers to Sebastopol, Kertch, &c. We passed theday in strolling through the town and in looking at thewell-supplied shops, and closed our ramble by loungingin the pretty promenade overhanging the sea, of which itcommands a fine view, as well as of the picturesque rockon which the castle is built.

CHAPTER III.

Russian steamboat – Our fellow-passengers – Russian resources forpassing the time – 'Mes Mémoires' – Sebastopol – Balaclava – Crimean scenery – Yalta – Aloupka – Wine-making in theCrimea – Russian ladies in distress – Tartar bandit – Jews inthe Crimea – Simpheropol – Kaffa – Kertch – Museum – Passage to Taman.

NEXT morning we embarked in the steamer, whichproved to be an excellent boat, having been, we were told,built in England. Her captain was scarcely entitled tocommand her, as will presently be seen. The companyin the saloon was numerous, consisting of princes andprincesses, counts and countesses, colonels, and captains,and fiddlers, and ladies and gentlemen of every degree,and of manners as various as their positions. I was littleprepared for the familiarity and good fellowship whichwithout loss of time, were established among all parties.It seems strange that in Russia, where there may be saidto be only two classes, the noble and the non-noble, theprocess of amalgamation should be so much more rapidand easy than in England; perhaps the reason may befound in the immense difference which is recognised between the two classes, and which enables the Russiannoble to condescend to familiarity without risk, just as wesee in England a man of rank vouchsafes to be jocularwith a peasant, while he shrinks from any approach tofamiliarity with a man higher in the scale. Whatever bethe cause, the fact was fully exemplified on this occasion,and no one could complain that reserve was among thedemerits of our lady passengers. The weather was beautiful, permitting a large consumption of time in eating anddrinking of very good fare in both kinds, diversified withcards and scandal. When these pastimes palled, thesefrolicsome princes and princesses determined on edifyingeach other by relating their memoirs. Prince —, aremarkably tall, stout representative of the interminablefamily of the — (every second prince one meets inRussia being of this genuine Sclavonian stock), took thelead, and gravely produced to an admiring circle of hiscountrywomen, a large manuscript entitled 'Mes Mémoires.' It was curious to observe that even in conversing among themselves, French was the only languagespoken by these Russian ladies and gentlemen. Manyamong the former were handsome. Beauty in Russia seemsa good deal dependent on race. Those sprung from purelySclavonic blood, or from the descendants of Rurik's companions, differ little in regularity of feature and expression of countenance from the handsomest races of Europe.But the least tinge of the Tartar taint is as difficult toefface as that of Africa; the little elongated eye, thespreading nostril, the thick lip, and the unhealthy jaundiced hue, are sure to be revealed more or less,

Among the ladies was the Countess —, a particularly handsome woman, strikingly graceful and attractive.She lived at the same inn that we occupied in Odessa,and wrote a most pressing note to my husband, expressing her strong desire to call on him relative to someimportant business. He, thinking it would be more politeto take the initiative, went to her apartment, where hewas rather surprised to find that this important businessconsisted of some absurd claim, which her deceasedhusband possessed some thirty years ago to the Persianorder of the Lion and Sun, and which claim she desiredto make good, as she heard the decoration bestowedwas sometimes of value. It was only after a longdelay he succeeded in evading her importunity. PrinceWoronzow was also threatened by this lady with avisit, and he immediately went to her apartment, asthere at all events he had a fair chance of making hisescape. It appeared she was in the habit of travelling incompany with a Russian fiddler. On board, the Countessbecame, in common with the rest of her countrywomen,very familiar with the facetious Prince who had amusedthe company with the recital of his adventures. Shecame up to my husband full of smiles and graces, andtold him she had been most fortunate in undertaking thevoyage at this juncture, as she had the happiness ofmeeting with two cousins on board, one being the Prince,and the other "ce Monsieur," said she, introducing thefiddler–"il est artiste." We afterwards met him atdinner at Aloupka, but without the Countess. It wouldbe very rash to infer from this debonair lady's free andeasy manners, that she was to be considered as a fairspecimen of the Russian ladies.

Having touched at Eupatoria, we did not reach Sebastopol until next day. In the morning a heavy fog severely tried the nautical skill of our commander, which however was insufficient to prevent our vessel from running onshore, close to where the battle of the Alma must havebeen fought, but owing to the smoothness of the sea weescaped unscathed. Even then we could not look on thefortifications of the harbour of Sebastopol, with their longarray of guns, without interest, or without speculatingwho would be the first enemy they would be called on torepel. The two hours we spent in this memorable fortress were devoted to rambling through the clean andwell-built streets, under the guidance of a Russian navalofficer, whom we accidentally met, and who kindly obtainedpermission from the governor, or the admiral, to be ourcicerone in seeing what was deemed curious, and perhaps in not letting us see more than was necessary.He conducted us from one large building to another, andfrom one immense ship to another–among them, thepride of the Russian navy, the "Twelve Apostles." Iderived no pleasure from the excursion; indeed I feltheartily tired, though now I congratulate myself on thefortunate chance which led me to a place of imperishableremembrance in the world's records.

It was night when we sailed round Cape Chersonese,the southern point of the Crimea, and thus we lost thesight of the beautiful landscapes on the south coast, thoughwe were so close to the shore as to be able to see theentrance to the ever-memorable Balaclava. It blew hardduring the night, raising the sea as well as exciting greatcommotion amidst our lively princes and princesses.Among the first to suffer was our commander. Thatbold man of war, who fondly believed himself to bearsome likeness to an English naval officer, after strugglingfor a time, lay helpless and prostrate, but sought comfortand encouragement in the remembrance that mightyNelson himself to the last was liable to the same mishap.A brilliant morning saw us at anchor at a short, distancefrom the little town of Yalta, with all the lovely sceneryof the southern Crimea in full view. Hills coveredwith verdure down to the sea, woods, interminable vineyards, hamlets, and villas, formed a scene not easilyforgotten, and brought to mind the garden of the world,–Italy, and all its beauties.

Well might that excellent traveller, Clarke, call thesouthern coast of this peninsula a paradise, if all he saysbe true of the continual streams of limpid water gushingfrom the mountain side, fertilising the gardens with aperpetual bloom and cooling the heated atmosphere, thesoil a hotbed of vegetable productions, no reptiles, novenomous insects, and, above all, no unwholesome exhalations, of which, in another place, he says the soil is sofruitful at Inkerman, Balaclava, &c. Would that oursick soldiers had been able to find here a respite from thedeadly fevers of Sebastopol! change of air or seasonbeing the only efficacious cure for the fever of malaria.

An aide-de-camp of Prince Woronzow soon appearedon board to convey us on shore, where no less than twophaëtons and four, if not six, awaited us, and soon transported us, at Russian pace, through the varied landscapesbordering the coast, back to Aloupka, which we had passedduring the night.

The sight of this gorgeous mansion struck us withsurprise. We were aware of the magnificence of Russiannobles, but did not expect to behold a palace which insize and splendour can vie with the most lordly dwellingsof England. It is constructed in a style half Gothic, halfMoorish. The Oriental Hall, as it is designated, is devoted to the morning reception of the numerous companywhich is always assembled during the residence of the"Lieutenant of the Emperor," and is equally splendidand delightful, overlooking the beautiful gardens andpleasure-grounds reaching to the sea, of which there is afine prospect. I admired the exquisite taste with whichthe vases were filled with flowers and fruit, and I wastold that the Princess had her reception-rooms andboudoir decorated every day by a painter with fresh fruitand flowers. It well deserves the proud inscription on theImperial Palace at Delhi, which we afterwards sent fromTehran in the most elaborate Persian writing, to be affixedover the entrance of this apartment:

"Agher ferdows der rooe Zameen ast,
Hameen asto, hameen asto, hameen ast."

"If on earth there Eden be,
It is this, it is this, it is this."

Our princely entertainer, princely in every sense of theword, and Princess Woronzow, a Polish lady of the noblehouse of Branitzka, devoted the day to our amusem*nt inshowing us all over the estate, an operation of no smallfatigue from its extent, and from its being, not hill anddale, but all hill and no dale–like Queen Elizabeth'scelebrated portrait, all light and no shadow. Everythingwas in the highest order and perfection, thanks to thePrince's manager and bailiff, a thoroughly active and intelligent Englishman, whom we had the pleasure of meeting. His librarian, too, was an Englishman. It was,however, his vineyard and winepresses which the Princeexhibited with exultation, as they are chiefly of his owncreation: The Crimea has a debt of gratitude to pay thispatriotic nobleman. The vineyards are of immense extent, producing every kind of grape, all introduced byPrince Woronzow. The varieties of the vines, collectedfrom all parts of the world, are not less than two or threehundred. The wine manufactured on the Prince's estateis said to be exceedingly good, though not equalling inflavour its prototypes of Champagne and Bordeaux. TheCrimean Barsac, Sauterne, and vin de Grave have a highreputation. The Prince's wine-makers were two garrulous Frenchmen, father and son, from the banks of theGaronne. The elder Frenchman announced that nextday was his birthday, and insisted on receiving a remembrance of his fête from the Prince; who at once kindlyconsented, remarking, however, that this festival seemedto occur much oftener than once a year. The greatestcuriosity shown us was a Tartar village close to thehouse. The inhabitants, men and women, came out toreceive and salute their ruler, who addressed them withmuch cordiality. The Prince said they were quiet, goodpeople. They were very poor, very dirty, and very ugly.

At night a numerous party assembled at dinner; theguests could not have been less than fifty–a numberstated to be unusually small. The company was said tobe somewhat motley, according to the common practiceof Russian noblemen, who are said to be regardless of therank of their guests, further than giving to each a higheror lower-placed seat at table, and more or less costly fare,in proportion to his social status. The wines werenumerous and excellent, all supplied from the Prince'sown estate at Aloupka.

A few visitors came later in the evening, among whomwas a French gentleman, long established in the country.He spoke warmly in favour of the Russian peasantry,their intelligence, their industry, their knowledge of theirrights, and their tenacity in maintaining them.

Next morning after breakfast we bade adieu to Aloupka.Fair befall its lovely bowers and radiant halls! May itbe safe from the ravages of war, and the presence of thespider and the owl! as I remember having read in myPersian studies–

"Perdehdaree mee kooned der kasr e kaïsar ankeboot,
Nowbet mee zaned boom der goombed e Afrasiab."

"The spider weaves his web in the halls of the Cæsars,
The owl tolls his knell in the dome of Afrasiab."

This being Sunday, we attended church at the house ofPrince Narishkin, part of whose family belongs to theCatholic Church, and who maintains in his establishmenta clergyman of that religion. Their estate adjoins thatof Prince Woronzow, and is almost equally beautiful.

We passed here a few agreeable hours in the societyof this family and their visitors. Russians, of that classat all events, seem to make it their study to renderthemselves attractive to foreigners, and I am told theyfeel greater anxiety to leave a good impression on English than on other travellers, not, I conjecture, from anyspecial liking towards us, for that, I, am persuaded, theydo not entertain, however much they may esteem andconfide in individual character.

That they do confide in our honour much more thanin that of their own countrymen, I have a strong conviction. I remember hearing of a Russian gentleman atTehran who gave a sum of money to an English officer, toprocure some finery for his wife, from India. This gentleman being on the point of leaving Tehran, he told theofficer to avoid carefully letting his purchases fall into thehands of a Russian, as he should then certainly never seethem. Another Russian, wishing to send some specimensof Persian manufacture to his brother in Europe, insteadof forwarding them through the Russian Minister inConstantinople, who was his intimate acquaintance, beggeda member of the English Mission to convey them to theEnglish Consul at the latter city, for transmission to theirdestination. Yet both these men, particularly the first,were inveterately anti-English.

We saw at this time an odd example of the commercial,money-making spirit of the Russian nobility, who, however, it must be admitted, are equally willing to spend asto gain. The person I allude to was a man of large landedproperty, teeming with serfs. Not satisfied with this fruitful source of wealth, Prince — adopted the whim ofturning sugar manufacturer, for which purpose he constructed a large establishment. Finding the profits scanty,the prince abandoned sugar-making, and was busily engaged when we saw him, in plans. for founding a manufactory for paper. Nobody seemed to think there wasanything unusual in these pursuits. The prince's wantof luck, or skill, or wisdom, was all they thought of.

Surfeited with Russian navigation, and anxious to seesomething more of the Crimea, we determined to travelby land through the interior of the country to Kertch.One of the advantages of Russian travelling is, that, gowhere you will, from north to south, from east to west,from Warsaw to Kamschatka, from the Samoides toPersia, post-horses abound. We therefore landed ourcarriage, though with no small difficulty, Yalta being anopen roadstead. All the energy and kindness of PrinceWoronzow's English bailiff were required to save thevehicle from being deposited at the bottom of the BlackSea. This being accomplished, it was late when we saidadieu to our hosts, the ladies embracing me, and pityingme for going, as they said, to a worse place than Siberia;in which latter country, they assured me, there were ballsand diversions of various kinds among the exiles; whereasin Persia there was nothing of the kind. We then, onthe 8th of October, proceeded on our journey, leaving theFeldt Jäger and servants on board to recreate themselvesthe remainder of the voyage to Kertch. The absence ofthe former did not cause us the least inconvenience. Ourroad lay along the coast to Alushta, through beautifulscenery and a hilly country. At this small town weturned to the north, the road leading over the tedious passof Chadir-dagh, or Tent Mountain, so called from a fanciedresemblance to a tent. It was long after nightfall whenwe commenced the ascent, our progress having been retarded in playing the good Samaritan to two Russianladies travelling post alone to Yalta, whose tears and entreaties were fruitless in persuading the obdurate yemshiks, as the Russian postilions are called, to supply themwith horses. They appealed to us piteously for succour,and we sent them on their way rejoicing, after we hadsoftened the hearts of the yemshiks in the manner mostefficacious in Russia, as well as in other countries.

Chadir-dagh proved to be an exceedingly high hill–mountain, indeed, I might call it–but with a tolerablygood and perfectly safe road. Though I forget its height,I remember it to be the Chimborazo and Dewalagiri ofthe Crimea. At the summit, which we reached at midnight, we resolved to remain in the carriage at the solitarypost-house, having before our eyes the fear of a famousrobber, who for a long time had set the Czar at defiance.Our only weapon was a single old Russian flint-pistol,kindly offered for our protection by a Russian gentlemanwhom we accidentally met at the inn at Yalta; but thispistol looked more dangerous to fire than to face; moreawful subjectively than objectively; and, as Mr. Grattansaid of the Irish militia, it seemed formidable only to itsfriends. This marauder was a Tartar, who had been asoldier and deserted. Prince Woronzow told us that heonce singly encountered and despoiled sixteen Jews. Heforced them to lie on the earth, "boca a tierra," after theSpanish fashion, and then robbed them at his leisure,recreating himself at intervals with oaths, kicks, and cuffs.

The Jews of the Crimea are called Karaites, thoughwhy I do not remember.2 They reject, it is said, theTalmud and all tradition, clinging to the Bible alone.They are infinitely superior to their tribe in Poland,Russia, and Persia, in personal appearance; and they havethe reputation of equally exceeding them in morals andcharacter. The squalor, dirt, rags, and abject sycophancy of the Jews of those countries are not found amongthe Karaites.

In the morning we descended the mountain, and arrivedin good time at Simpheropol, and were conducted to asmall country seat–small, contrasted with Aloupka–belonging to Prince Woronzow, whose hospitality and kindness never slept from the time we entered his dominions,as I may call them, at Odessa, until we left them at theAras, on the frontier of Persia. We found everythingprepared for us,–servants, beds, and a most luxuriousbreakfast. We would willingly have passed a day at thispleasant retreat, which, among other attractions, containeda large library; but the fear of the Caucasus and KaseeBeg 3 urged us on. We drove through a pleasant, slightlyundulating country, sometimes a savannah, but at intervals well cultivated and inhabited. In many places webeheld what to my husband was a novelty, as well as tome,–camels drawing waggons heavily laden, and ploughing the fields. In Arabia, India, Persia, and Turkey,they are used only as beasts of burden; and in Mekran,and among the Belooches, for riding, on their distantmarauding expeditions. Late at night we arrived atKaffa, or Theodosia, as the Russians prefer to call it,where we found excellent horses ready for us, and therefore remained only a few minutes; but long enough, darkas it was, to perceive it was reduced to humble pretensions. The remains of the palaces constructed by theGenoese when they were lords of Kaffa, suffered destruction at the hands of the Tartars and Turks, for the construction of their mosques and dwellings; and these intheir turn are reported to have undergone similar devastation from the Muscovite conquerors; so that between theinvaders little is left to Theodosia of its ancient magnificence. What a contrast, and what a theme for reflection,does its present state afford, compared to the days when300,000 Russians were collected in its bazars, and soldas slaves to the merchants of Constantinople!

Continuing our journey over an exceedingly bad road,we next day reached Kertch, where we found an excellenthouse awaiting us. This is a cheerful town, and must bethriving; as, besides being the quarantine station, vesselswhose burden unfits them for the shallow navigation of theSea of Azow, await here the arrival of their cargoes fromTaganrog and the Don. Though exceedingly hot insummer, the cold in winter is of equal intensity, notwithstanding that the position of Kertch is eight degrees lowerthan that of London. Sledges proceed down the Don toTaganrog, and even over part of the Sea of Azow. Kertch,it may be surmised, does not possess many objects of artor curiosity. Whatever may have been the antiquity ofthe Cimmerian Bosphorians, little remains to mark theirpower at this regal seat of Mithridates beyond the numerous sepulchral mounds with which the neighbourhood iscrowded. Time and violence have done their work; although it is supposed that research among its ruins wouldbring to light more antiquities than are to be found in anypart of the Crimea. A small museum, containing medals,coins, inscriptions, fragments of marbles, and articles ofpottery, collected in the neighbourhood, reputed to beremnants of the Grecian rule once existing here, andstrongly resembling similar specimens from Etruria, ispreserved with great reverence. The governor's wife mostkindly lent us her carriage to view a large mound, a shortdistance from Kertch, which our cicerone vouched to bethe tomb of Mithridates, but which I believe was a stretchof his imagination, the so-called sepulchre of that monarchbeing, I am told, much farther off. The former must bethe place which a French writer (Dubois Montreux), arecent author, I believe, with a Gallican contempt for allnames not French, calls Kouloba, and which Clarke namesAltynobo, intended probably for Altoon-oba, meaning,golden tent, or house, in Turkish. The doctor's Turkish, however, is not very orthodox, I hear. In the Crimeahe meets with a piece of water which he calls "Beys eau,"Bey's water, and expresses his astonishment that the wordsshould be pronounced exactly as in French, and have precisely the same meaning. The mistake is curious, andought to put travellers on their guard in dealing with newlanguages. The words are Bey soo; the latter meaningwater in Turkish.

It contained nothing to excite attention, unless the association of ideas carrying back the mind to remote antiquity. An excavation at the foot of the mound revealeda small vaulted chamber, empty, as may be guessed.The surrounding country seemed covered with mounds ofthe same kind. The Russian coachman drove us over thecountry in a heavy vehicle, having a large hammercloth,with a recklessness only equalled in Persia. The charioteers of both countries seem to consider a carriage as apiece of artillery. Mountains, rivers, and ravines are noimpediment to them, as I have found by experience. LikeSir Richard Blackmore, we might say,–

"Nor Alps, nor Apennines could keep him out,
Nor fortified redoubt."

On the succeeding day a small steamer was provided toconvey us across the Cimmerian Bosphorus, the Straits ofTaman, a voyage which occupied two hours. The weatherwas charming; nevertheless we saw a Russian war-steamerin a plight similar to what befell ours near Sebastopol.She was lying on her side on a sand-bank. (A.)

² I have since heard that, like Koran, the word is derived from anArabic term meaning "to read."

³ A high mountain in the Caucasus.

CHAPTER IV.

Passage to Taman – Russian hospitals – Line of the Kuban – Russian sentinels perched on platforms – Cossacks of the line – Ekaterinodar – Stavropol – Our Armenian hostess – Novel modeof ablution – Giorgesk – Caucasian watering-place – Vladikafkaz,the keep of the Caucasus – Curious mode of conversion to Christianity among the Ossets – Shamil – Across the Caucasus to Tiflis.

TAMAN is a miserable place, desolate, dreary, and sad.It consists of a few houses, or rather cottages, on the shore.The commandant's house alone possessed the dignity ofa patch of garden; the rest was steppe or swamp. Wewished to proceed without delay, but the commandant'shospitality would not admit of our departure without partaking of his bread and salt; and, to say the truth, hunger,with a vision of being dinnerless until we reached Tiflis,looming in the future, made us more ready to comply.The interval before dinner was passed by my husbandin inspecting the military hospitals with our host. Tamanseems to be used chiefly as an establishment for invalidsoldiers. Two or three hundred of them from the smallposts along the Circassian coast of the Black Sea, werenow lying here. My husband said the hospitals were inexcellent order. The sick seemed carefully attended to;the beds were comfortable; the men were dressed in goodhospital clothing, which, as well as their own persons,was perfectly clean. Russian was the only language knownto the Tamanians; nevertheless we could understand, thatthe Circassian coast was considered pestiferous, duringsummer. Indeed, it is notorious that the Russians perishin that climate, as well as in the swamps and jungles ofImeretia and Mingrelia, in numbers which would seemincredible.

The fact of making such a place as Taman a generalhospital for the garrison of the coast was alone proofsufficient of the dreadful climate prevailing at the militarystations on the shores of the Black Sea. Taman, too,conceals its hidden treasures of antiquities, its tumuli,its fragments of marbles, temples, and so forth; the remnants of a former age of Hellenic greatness and enterprise.Now it is desolate enough; and one can scarcely bringoneself to credit that here was once a great city.

In the evening we renewed our journey. We now hadapproached dangerous ground; it was only in the islandof Taman we could venture to travel by night. Notwithstanding the assurances of Prince Woronzow ofperfect safety, I could not approach the haunts of theCircassians without anxiety. Their feats of daring intheir predatory incursions were well known; and it wasbesides obvious to the eye in how much awe they wereheld by the Russians. Our road was along the line ofthe Kuban, the river separating Russia from Circassia;for though the Emperor includes the latter countryamong "all the Russias," the frontier is as distinctlytraced as that of Persia or China. We never venturedto move without a considerable escort of those showyhorsem*n the line Cossacks. It is marvellous how littlechange has taken place in this country during fifty years.Our journey under the Caucasus was only a repetitionof that described by Clarke in his interesting travels; thesame morasses, and jungles, the same clouds of mosquitos, or rather midges, which could not be excludedfrom a closed carriage; the same desolation, the sameposts of Cossacks at short intervals. It was curious tosee the sentinel perched at the summit of a triangle,thirty or forty feet high, with a small platform at the top,gazing intently at the Kuban, and over the extensiveplains of grass, swamp, and jungle beyond that river,towards Circassia; surmounted by a beacon to be firedthe moment an enemy was distinguishable. So absorbedwere the watchers, that when we passed under theirstrange roosting-place they hardly deigned to look at us,although for them we must have been a novel spectacle. This vigilance impressed me with a very uncomfortablesense of danger; or was it a mere display of rigid discipline these Cossacks were enacting? In reading Clarke'snarrative of the scene fifty years ago, I fancy him to havebeen our companion on our journey in 1849.

Let the traveller on the Kuban bid adieu to the comforts, and sometimes to the necessaries, of life. I scarcelyquitted the carriage until we reached Stavropol, thecapital of the Russian districts north of the Caucasus.A few Cossack villages might be seen here and there,with some appearance of cultivation; but at the militaryposts and post-houses the accommodation and fare wereof the humblest, or, more truly, the meanest, description.On one occasion, arriving late at a station after a longand hard day's work, we found absolutely nothing to eat,not even bread, or the hitherto unfailing samawar, orkettle-urn, for preparing tea, which is found throughoutRussia; so we went dinnerless and supperless to bed,not having anticipated or provided for this dearth andfamine.

Our guards, as I before said, were composed of Cossacks of the line, meaning those guarding and stationedon the line of the Kuban. They are, I have heard itconjectured, formed from miscellaneous races: Turkishtribes settled in these tracts, refugees from Circassiain a large proportion, and colonists from the Tchernomorski, or Black Sea Cossacks, who inhabit thecountry northwards towards the Don, where begins theterritory of the Don Cossacks. They hold a high reputation in Russia for the military qualities created by alife of unceasing peril, and for their constant and successful struggles with their mountain foes. My husbandwas in admiration of their appearance, thoroughly roughand ready, "rugged and dangerous." They are altogether irregular troops, each man fighting on his ownaccount. They seem to dress as they best can, thoughthey affect as much as possible the appearance of Circassians in attire, arms, and mode of fighting, so much soas not to be easily distinguishable at a short distancefrom the mountaineers. A "pulk" of line Cossacks,with their weather-beaten visages, their thick beards,their Circassian caps of black sheepskin, resembling abroad low turban, with a loose crown of yellow or redcloth; their motley coarse frock-coats with six receptaclesfor ball-cartridges on each breast, like the Circassians;their yaponchas, a short cloak of goatskin with long hair,moveable round the neck to face the wind and rain fromany quarter, present a striking spectacle. These lineCossacks are described to be the only Cossacks who willfight the Circassians on equal terms, or of whom theCircassians have the least apprehension. I was told itwas a point of honour among the Circassians and theserough soldiers that, if two parties or two single horsem*nmet, and were in doubt if they were friends or foes, ahorseman from one side would dash out and gallop in acircle to the right, if a Circassian; on which a horsemanfrom the other party would immediately imitate thisevolution, but galloping to the left, if a Cossack, to showhe was a foe. An eternal war is waged between the lineCossacks and the Circassians who inhabit the swampygrassy plains between the Kuban and the mountains, sofavourable for ambush and surprise. Dr. Clarke seemsto think that the Tchernomorski Cossacks are derivedchiefly from Circassian descent, which would account fortheir martial qualities and superiority over the DonCossacks; yet how is this descent to be reconciled withthe same author's statement of the Tchernomorski beingcolonists from the Dnieper little more than half a centuryago? He is enthusiastic in favour of all Cossacks, Donand Tchernomorski; still I must avow that the specimensof the Don to be seen in Tehran, attached to the Russian mission, are far from exciting an impression intheir favour. Instead of the bold troopers of the Kuban,they have been metamorphosed into nondescript soldiers,in a frightful uniform.

We plodded our way through swamp and steppe, withthe Kuban on our right hand, without adventure orvariety, until we began to approach Ekaterinodar; andthen at length the long-wished-for peaks of the Caucasusbegan to show their solitary grandeur, every hour increasing in magnificence. The right bank of the riverbeing considerably more elevated than the land on theopposite side, we had, during our progress, a clear viewof the level country to the base of the mountains, with anoccasional sight of the rapid Kuban, and now and then aCircassian village afar off. Ekaterinodar is the principalsettlement of the Tchernomorski Cossacks, and is littlemore than a large military station, constructed after thefashion of that martial race. It is a collection of cottages, with a few better houses interspersed, belongingto the commandant, his staff, and the officers of theCossacks.

The kindness of Prince Woronzow still pursued, orrather met us. At Ekaterinodar we were received byCount M—, aide-de-camp of the general-in-chief ofCossacks, who had been despatched from Stavropol tomeet us. We are under great obligations to this youngofficer, who accompanied us the rest of our journey tothe Persian frontier. Ever active, and on the watch tooblige us and facilitate our journey, under his chargewe made rapid progress. His equipage consisted ofthe springless, roofless pavoska; but in Russia officers,soldiers, and horses, lead a rough life. The pavoska isthe vehicle of all ranks of the army. Prince SimonWoronzow, the son of the Emperor's Lieutenant, and amajor-general, used often to mount the pavoska andtravel day and night.

Our road to Stavropol was generally level. Thisremark is applicable to the entire tract in this part ofRussia, it being only at the very foot of the Caucasusthat any considerable difference of elevation is perceptible. On the left hand was the interminable flat steppe,extending far to the east, north, and west; and on theright were the grassy plains of Kabarda, or Circassiacis-Caucasus, the country of the race named in their ownlanguage Adigh, the word Cherkess, the original of Circassia, being, it seems, either Turkish or Persian. Theinhabitants of these plains are, from their accessibility,more or less subject to Russia; but this vassalage doesnot, as we have seen, dispense with the most watchfulcirc*mspection, nor prevent the wild denizens from carrying their forays across the Kuban. At this part of thejourney we lost the opportunity, never to be retrieved, ofseeing a Circassian family. Knowing my curiosity onthe subject, Count M— had ordered a family ofhostages from a friendly tribe, to be prepared at daylight to receive company; the men arrayed for battle, thewomen and children in their gayest national costume.At daybreak we proceeded, as we thought, to their house,some distance off, but after an hour we found we were faron the high road to Stavropol, our French servant havingjudged fit to think and to say we were wholly indifferentto everything sublunary excepting breakfast.

Stavropol is the chief town of the Russian Caucasiandistricts, north of the mountains. Like all Russian townsin this part of the world, the streets are wide, the houseslow and painted white. There was a theatre and anassembly-room, where, I was told, they had balls duringwinter.

We arrived at near midnight, and were lodged in thehouse of an Armenian merchant. At the door, to ourconsternation, there appeared something very like anillumination to celebrate our arrival, while several civilauthorities, in full dress, presented themselves to offertheir congratulations. Next followed an officer in uniform, who, with great solemnity of demeanour and theattitude of the parade, drew forth a paper, from which heread aloud in Russian. This proved to be a report or"present state" of the garrison of Stavropol, which thisgentleman lost no time in notifying. After apprising usof the number of the sick, absent, and the forthcoming,they all gravely retired, and left us to a needful and excellent supper, and to repose. This complimentary formof the military report seems to be an ordinary usage.We experienced a repetition of the same ceremony severaltimes afterwards. We were, as I said before, billeted inthe house of a wealthy merchant, whose wife next morningcame to pay me a visit, with seven fine children, of whomshe seemed very proud. . She was gorgeously attired in alight-coloured satin dress, with a profusion of diamonds,pearls, and jewellery. Russian and Armenian being theonly languages in which she could communicate, ourconversation was limited, but she made up in civility andsmiling good-humour for our inability to converse. Ashort time after the visit was over, I found her, in her ordinary plain dress, washing her hands and face in a saucepan. This saucepan, and a small silver jug in my room, ofthe size of a cream-ewer, appeared to be the only vesselsin the house appropriated to ablution. But, primitiveas was the former culinary utensil, my husband met aninstance where it was exceeded in simplicity. Manyyears previously he had been travelling in the Caucasus.Having stopped one night at a post-house, in the morning,on awaking, he found a Russian officer dressing–ifdressing it could be called, he having slept in his clothes,boots and all. Among other feats of legerdemain, or debouche, he filled his mouth with water, where, as it wascold, he retained it some time, and, after being sufficiently heated, he ejected it gradually on his hands,scouring his face at the same time. With all these peculiarities, it may be doubted if the Russians in general arenot at least as attentive to their persons as the English.The hot bath is the constant resource of the poorestpeasant.

We dined next day with the Governor, at whosehouse we met an agreeable party. Seated near me wasa pretty little girl of apparently twelve or fourteen, who,to my astonishment, turned out to be the wife of ourfriend Count M—, and the mother of his son andheir. No one at table seemed to think her youth extraordinary, early marriages being, it appeared, as frequentin Russia as in America.

We had left the Kuban before reaching Stavropol,from which time the security of the roads seemed to increase. Our escort, after leaving Stavropol, not onlydwindled to two or three horsem*n, but we even venturedoccasionally to travel without protection. The truth was,we had left the Circassians behind, and had approachedthe lands of the Tchetchens,–a tribe not less warlike,but whose country was free from the swamps and fastnesses of Kabarda, and consequently more under thecontrol of the Russians. A few years ago, no travellerwas allowed to proceed without an escort, so dangerouswas the passage, while the post was accompanied by twopieces of artillery and a company of infantry. Even tothis day it is not safe to dispense with all precaution.

The next town we arrived at was Giorgesk, a place ofno importance, unless it be as a military post connectingStavropol with Vladikafkaz, the key of the Caucasus. Tothe right lay the famous watering-place called Besh-Dagh in Turkish and Piategorsk in Russian, meaningin both languages Five Mountains. This is the Baden-Baden of Russia, where the Muscovite loungers or invalids come from distant quarters, so far even as Moscow,to recruit their purses at the gaming-table, or theirhealth at the numerous springs, which are said to possessmedicinal virtues of every variety in no ordinary perfection. Piategorsk, several years ago, suffered the infliction of a foray, and was surprised by the mountaineers;nearly every one, it is said, having been destroyed,including a colony of German missionaries, with theirfamilies.

At length, still following the steppe, we reached Vladikafkaz. The solemn snow-clad range of the Caucasushad long before displayed itself to our sight in all itsglory and grandeur. Towering far above all was themonarch mountain of the range, Elboorz, situated in theheart of the independent tribes, and said to be at least16,000 feet high;4 its summit has, it is supposed, neveryet been reached. It is strange that in Persia the samename of Elboorz should be preserved for the range ofmountains a few miles to the north of Tehran, which iscontinued to Khorassan, and even farther, until at lengthit reaches the Hindoo Koosh, and, finally, the Himalaya.Vladikafkaz is an important. post, close to the Caucasus,of which it commands the entrance by the famous pass ofDariel. From Stavropol to this fortress the same systemof fortified posts was maintained that we had seen on theother side of that city, though in fewer numbers, but atVladikafkaz, even to my unpractised eye, it was evidentthat much greater care and expense had been bestowedin strengthening the key of the central Caucasus, and ofthe Russian communications with Tiflis and the Georgianprovinces. It deserves all their solicitude, as, with theexception of the road by Derbend, on the Caspian Sea,Redout Kala and the Black Sea being no longer Russian, this is the only line for the transmission of troops,munitions of war, or merchandize, to the trans-Caucasiandistricts. There are, it is reported, other paths intersecting the mountains, but being through the midst ofhostile tribes, and moreover only available for foot travellers, or at most horsem*n, the importance of the mainroute has.never been overlooked. The entire road toTiflis is defended by strong posts and barracks, whichcontribute largely to preserve the fidelity of the Ossets,through whose territory the road is carried. This tribehas been so thoroughly subdued that no escort is requiredbetween Vladikafkaz and Tiflis, excepting, strangelyenough, for the first four miles on leaving the former city,where the mountains really commence. The remainderof the road is considered sufficiently guarded by the presence of the various military posts disposed along its entirelength. The Ossets have been subject to Russia sincethe time Georgia was annexed to that empire, more thanfifty years ago. A portion of the tribe is said to haveadopted a sort of nominal Christianity; so many indeedhave been proselytised, that to use the quaint expressionof a Russian writer (Wagner), the converts far exceedthe entire population–something like my countryman,who, when his pocket was picked, declared that five outof four of his companions were thieves. It appears that,conversion being attended with certain advantages, thesame proselytes had been repeatedly registered underdifferent appellations.

October 19th.–We had been anxious to leave Vladikafkaz at once without stopping, but the flesh-pots ofEgypt were too alluring to the appetite of Count M—,who perfectly well knew the difference between a supperat a post-station in the mountains of Caucasus, and anelaborate repast at Prince Woronzow's house at Vladikafkaz, where he assured us everything was prepared forour reception. A few sly hints thrown in by the Countof the approach of evening and of the risk from prowlersof Shamil's partizans, put an end to speculation, and weadjourned to Prince Woronzow's house, where, as usual,we had every reason to be grateful for his kindness.

Strolling about the heights near the town later in theevening, we were shown, far to the north-east, the hillswhere Shamil was said to be living in defiance of the Emperor of all the Russias. This information gave us somesurprise. Shamil in Persia is regarded as chief of theLezgees, a tribe, the fiercest among these mountaineers,who inhabit the tracts towards the Caspian, at the easternextremity of the Caucasus. Shamil is, however, an erraticmonarch, one day leading a foray against the Russians,or defending himself from one of their inroads, anothercarrying fire and sword among the tribes which have,traitorously dared to form a truce with the Muscovites.We saw during our walk a few miserably dressed girlsnear some tents belonging to the Ossets.

Next morning we resumed our journey. A smallescort conducted us to the entrance of the Pass ofDariel, and there left us, all danger having then ceased.As my pen cannot do justice to the grandeur of the scenesour road led us through, I shall not attempt to describethem, but refer the curious reader to Sir R. Ker Porter'swork, in which the mountain scenery of the Pass of Darielis most vividly portrayed. After passing the villageof Dariel, from which is derived the name of the defile,we spent the night in a lonely post-house, where for thefirst time I heard the howling of jackals. It is a melancholy wild cry, and, as in Ireland we are accustomed toregard the howling of a dog as a thing of ill omen, theseyells sounded particularly dismal to me. Next daywe passed in succession Kazee Bey, the formidable KazeeBey, Kobi, Kassanoor, Ananoor, Doushete. We foundthe road excellent and free from danger, as free at leastas a mountain road can be made. Sir R. Ker Porterhas indulged in a little exaggeration in his description ofthe horrors and perils he experienced in the passage ofthe defile, though for my part I cannot remember anycause for excitement or apprehension, unless to a veryfervid imagination. Even Kazee Bey, said to be 14,000feet high, was divested of any terror. The carriage wasso heavy that we left it and ascended to the summit inthe pavoska; the descent was so steep that we thought itmore prudent to walk down. I can imagine that underanother aspect, a wall of snow impending above and ascanty breadth of road, my lord judge (Kazee is our oldacquaintance Cadi) would be very formidable, and wouldgive a severe trial to the nerves. At the foot of thismountain we crossed, by a long narrow bridge, a rapidturbulent river, which we were told was the Terek, thesecond stream in importance in the Caucasus. Thesouthern extremity of the bridge was defended by a smallmilitary work, which seemed more insignificant than soimportant a position deserved.

At Ananoor we had the good fortune to make the acquaintance of a Mingrelian lady, who was married to aperson of distinction among the Ossets. She was sittingat the end of a room, destitute, with the exception ofPersian carpets, of all furniture. She was dressed in theGeorgian costume, which is very becoming to a youngface, but makes old people look perfectly frightful. Itconsists of a cap made of coloured silk, embroidered either with gold or pearls, made like a boy's cap, and placed onthe top of the head; the hair hangs down in tresses, andover it is thrown a light tulle veil; the gown opens infront, showing a thin handkerchief; and over the dress isa short pelisse, made, if possible, of the richest materials.This lady must have been handsome when young. Shecomplained of the solitude of her life, as she had no children; and, in going away, begged we would leave her ourvisiting-cards as a souvenir,

Before quitting the Caucasus I may as well transcribea few particulars concerning the Circassians, which thoughI fear may not be in themselves novel, yet certainly comefrom a novel source, namely, a Turkish slave-dealer, whohad given up his profession, and was my husband's instructor in Turkish several years ago at Trebizonde.His name was Hafiz Effendi, and his residence in Circassia amounted to five years. His reason for giving upthis branch of commerce was the vigilance of the Russiancruisers, which made it too hazardous to attempt to crossthe sea with his living cargo. The ports he frequentedwere Soojook Teghameesa and Shiyapsookha, and he frequently penetrated fifteen or twenty hours' distance intothe interior.

There are no towns; the villages are built along thecoast, but are not very numerous; the houses are dispersed through the forest, which is not thick and reachesclose to the sea.

The population is divided into the following classes–khans, or princes; meerzas, nobles; usdens, gentlemen;ryots, or freemen; and kieulehs, serfs; besides slavesobtained in war or by purchase.

These classes do not intermarry; and, like the castesof India, no man, whatever be his capacity or his deeds,can rise from one class to a higher rank. It is even veryrare for one class to buy slaves from another, unless tosell them again.

Circassia, or Adeegha, as the natives style their country,is divided into six large tribes or confederacies, of whichthe names are Natchwo, Natakhwo, Koblee, Sabich, Gwoghwo, Sotokh; but Kabarda, although the inhabitantsresemble the Circassians in language, customs, and manners, does not belong to any of these tribes. These sixlarge tribes are subdivided into fraternities, the membersof which hold to each other the relations of brother andsister, and therefore cannot intermarry.

Serfs are numerous, a rich man having often fifty orsixty male serfs. Their condition seems to be much moreanalogous with serfdom than slavery. In external appearance there is no difference perceptible between themand other Circassians. In colour they are the same, aswell as in courage and other qualities. Slaves may sitand eat in a mejlis, or society, of the higher classes, andthey carry arms.

About half the population consists of Soonee Mahommedans. In general they know very little of their religion,and many care very little about the matter. They areequally indifferent to the religion of their neighbours, andusually are willing to give their daughters in marriageto idolators, who are numerous. These latter appear tobelieve in God, but they worship trees; at all events,they go through ceremonies under trees.

There are some Christians of Greek or Armenian descent, but they are almost wholly Circassianised: theirlanguage, dress, customs, are Circassian. They canobtain wives from the idolators; but the Mahommedanswould rather give their daughters to the latter, as beingreal Adeeghas, than to these Christians, who are foundchiefly in the interior.

Eloping with a young woman, with her own consent, isa common occurrence. Her father can make no complaint, as, if the girl's parents are not slaves, she has thedisposal of herself; but he can exact from the lover theamount of her value, and the "white beards" settle whatthat value shall be.

The Circassians are of middling stature, and tolerablystout. Their hair is of all colours, but reddish is themost prevalent. Blue eyes are more common than anyother colour. They are not in general very fair, thoughsome among them are eminently so; and a good complexion is not at all uncommon.

They rarely sit cross-legged, or on their heels, preferring to sit like Europeans, on cushions. They eat, asthe Turks do, seated at a tray placed on a stool.

They never move out without their arms, it beingeffeminate to appear unprovided with the means of defence. Their tempers are excellent; they are not easilyroused to anger, and they are quickly pacified. Conversation is one of their chief amusem*nts, and they indulgein it freely.

The mode in which the trade with Turkey is carried onis this. Trebizonde is the principal port from which themerchants proceed, though they also embark from Samsoon and Sinope, Constantinople, and occasionally fromEgypt. The trade is generally conducted in partnership.One person supplies the capital, and the profits areequally divided between him and the person who undertakes the labour of the voyage to Circassia. The capital,on an average, is about 250l. or 300l. The articles takento Circassia mostly consist of silk and cotton cloths, calicoes, chintzes, cheap shawls, a small quantity of gunpowder, and a great deal of salt; also some Turkishcoloured leather for slippers and bridles.

When the boat arrives at a landing-place, it is drawnhigh up on the shore to conceal it from the Russians.The merchants then disembark, and if, from having madeprevious voyages, they are already provided with a konākpāe, they go at once to their abode; but if not, they inquire for the best private house, to which they proceedimmediately, and are always welcome. The konākpāe is the host. If one were to leave his house for another,it would be a mortal offence. It is his solemn duty toprotect the person and property of his guests, and he isalways ready to lose his life in their defence. As this iswell known, a traveller once hosted is tolerably safe.After the merchants have landed, the people assemblefrom the vicinity to hear the news, and to see the novelties from the land of the Ameer ool Moomeneen, theCommander of the Faithful, whom they continue torevere. The goods are taken to the konākpāe's house,and there the people come with their articles of barter,consisting of honey, butter, tallow, hides, fox-skins, slave-girls and boys–the two latter articles of trade being,however, kept in another dwelling–while the boatmenpurchase grain in exchange for salt, and take it toTurkey. People come from fifty hours' distance to traffic.They are keen in dealing, and never make a bargainwithout abundance of talking. The profits, after all expenses are paid, amount generally to twenty-five percent.

Those persons who have slaves for the market do notbring them to the merchant's residence. When the latterhas seen the slaves, they retire to another house, leavingthe transaction to be completed by no less a person thanan elchee, or ambassador, or by a dellāl, or broker.

When a Circassian says he has got slaves to sell, theTurk inquires if they are young, and in case of an affirmative answer, proceeds to ask how many spans they are.This refers to height. A girl is considered beyond spanning when she reaches six spans; she is then technicallysaid to be "qarishden chiqdee," that is, she has passedspanning, and is understood to be twelve years old.

Slaves are valued by the number of pieces of silk,chintz, &c, given in exchange for them.

Ugly female slaves are purchased for Constantinople, tofill menial or domestic duties. Old women are sometimessold in Circassia. They are purchased to act as nursesin Constantinople. An old woman may be worth two orthree thousand ghooroosh (17l. to 25l.) in that city.

If among the slaves that have been bought there areany full-grown men, they are chained or tied lest theyshould run away, but women are never tied. Themerchants, after the purchase, supply them with newclothes, the goodness and quality of which depend on thevalue of the slave. The food given to them is the sameas that of the merchants themselves, and there is no limitto the quantity.

A great many among the female slaves are glad toleave the country; and some young women, not slaves,who are poor and unprotected, especially orphans, oftenentreat their relations to sell them. Their hope isthat they may be purchased in Constantinople by somewealthy Turk, at the head of whose establishment they maybe placed. An orphan-girl, at all events, is certain ofnot changing for the worse.

Sometimes a free man is sold by force. He is stolenfrom some distant place, taken down to the coast, andsold. This does not often happen, and is still more rarewith regard to women.

Occasionally there is a collusive sale. A man procuresa friend to sell him; he then takes to flight, and theamount of the purchase is divided between them.

Hafiz Effendi says he does not well know how thesupply of slaves is maintained. The country is populous,criminals are sold, slaves are brought from distant places;as before observed, orphans are frequently offered forsale, and some persons are themselves desirous of change,and willing to be sold. These, he supposes, are the principal sources from which the supply is kept up. A mancannot sell his son or daughter against their own consent;but it is by no means uncommon for a man to bring hisdaughter into the market by her own desire. The unmarried girls do nothing whatever excepting needlework,but the married women do all the drudgery.

The Circassian girls are not, the Effendi considers,strikingly handsome. They are, however, exceedinglyclever and intelligent, readily learning Turkish, music,and dancing. Their intellectual superiority makes themattractive, and they soon acquire influence in a Turkishfamily. The Georgian women are handsome, but muchinferior in mental qualities, and their market value is inconsequence less.

Prices of course vary at Constantinople according tothe vigilance of Russian cruisers, and the incorruptibilityof Russian agents at Trebizonde, Samsoon, and Sinope.The following is the average price in Circassia:–

The foregoing statement is a very condensed accountof the Effendi's narrative, which would have been stillmore extended had not his affairs called him suddenly toConstantinople.

In passing through the Caucasus, Count M— procured us a gratification fully as interesting and agreeableas the dame from Mingrelia. The vocal powers of theRussian soldiery have a wide reputation, combining notonly sweetness of tone but superior execution. A partyof thirty or forty soldiers, whom he had assembled on theroadside, near one of the military stations we had justpast, improvised a concert, which proved highly agreeable.It had really a surprising effect to bear these rough uncultivated men singing with the utmost precision tenor,second tenor, bass, and all preserving a perfect correctnessand harmony. It is said that on a march an entire regiment of Russian soldiers will sometimes relieve theirfatigue by singing in parts one of their national melodies.

⁴ 18,493 feet, See Mrs. Somerville's Physical Geography. On theauthority of Fuss.

CHAPTER V.

Tiflis sacked by the Persians – Prince Woronzow's improvements – Georgian drinking parties – Armenian Patriarch – Gookcha Lake – Supper at Erivan – Etchmiatzin – Nakhshewan – Our host and hostess – Night at the Aras – Crossing the frontier – Farewell to Russia.

TIFLIS is another Vladikafkaz (key) on the southern sideof the Caucasus. We were glad to arrive at this capitalof the Transcaucasian provinces, which is close to the footof the mountains, and situated on both sides of the riverKur. Some sixty years ago it was sacked by the Shahof Persia, Agha Mahommed Khan, the founder of thedynasty of Kājār, who carried a large portion of the inhabitants, Georgians and Armenians, into slavery. I sawat Tehran a few of these unhappy captives, who all hadbeen forced to embrace Mahommedanism, and many ofwhom had risen to the highest stations; just as the Circassian slaves in Constantinople became pashas, seraskiers,capitan-pashas, &c. Tiflis has entirely recovered fromthis shock. It is now a most thriving, active, and bustlingcity, and will doubtless, when the day arrives for the development of free trade in the dominions of the Czar,become a rich emporium of commerce, situated as it ismidway between the Black Sea and Caspian, and on thehigh road between Russia, Persia, and Asia Minor. Theofficial part of the town is full of imposing buildings, andthe native portion is equally well stored with busy shops,crowded by the motley population. Prince Woronzow'sfostering care has not allowed this important part of theterritory under his jurisdiction to remain without itsshare of his patronage. In spite of the pre-occupationof a war not always successful, with the mountaineers,he is said to have planned many valuable institutions,to which are to be added a large and handsomely builttheatre for the performance of operas, not completedat the time of our visit, besides a small theatre, forRussian comedies and farces. All these improvementsevince his anxiety to promote civilization among theGeorgians and Armenians. The Military Governor ofTiflis was an Armenian of Georgia, General Baïbetoff;a man of experience, who had distinguished himself in thecampaigns of Turkey and Persia in former years. Itsounded strange to find an Armenian occupying this highpost, but Russia is more cosmopolite than England. Astranger of the gate is readily admitted within thetemple; but it will require a change in English ideasbefore we find a Canadian or Maltese Governor of India,or the Cape of Good Hope. Is this facility the resultof enlightenment, or does it proceed from the dearth ofnative talent?

If I were to form my opinion from the Georgian ladiesvisible in the street, which, except one evening that wewent to the theatre, was the only place I had an opportunity of beholding them, I should be forced to declarethat their beauty has obtained a greater reputation thanit deserves. They certainly are fair, with high complexions, natural or artificial, and regular features, all ofwhich perhaps entitle the owners to the meed of beauty;still the entire absence of animation or expression deprivesthe countenance of attraction. They look well, however,in their pretty dresses while young. The Armenians,when out of doors, wrap themselves up in white veils, orrather cloaks, which have a graceful effect.

At Tiflis we were lodged, as usual, at the house of anArmenian merchant. He was a man of much reputedwealth. His house was furnished with great richness, andat a cost that may be imagined when it is considered thatthe whole of the furniture was brought from St. Petersburg. It was much too expensive to be profaned by use,being exclusively reserved either for compulsory guests,like ourselves, or marriage and other feasts. The part ofthe habitation occupied by our host and his family wasvery humble, and far from clean.

Next to its conquerors, the Georgians are the mastercaste of this country. It is said that between the Georgians and the Armenians, who are found here in greatnumbers, there is a wonderful contrast in character andmanners. The Georgian is bold, turbulent, reckless, extravagant; the Armenian is mean, cringing, timid, alwaysintent on gain, and, unlike a Georgian, in keeping whathe gains. The same characteristics mark him in Persiaand Turkey, and I am told everywhere else; for, like thegipsy, he is a wanderer on the face of the earth, and is tobe found in every part of Asia. He is consequently anabundant and pleasant harvest to all needy pashas, khans,hakims, and minor functionaries of misrule, easily reaped,gathered, and gleaned.

It is as unsurpassable topers, as well as for their militaryqualities, which have always been acknowledged, that theGeorgians have acquired notoriety. At their frequentdrinking parties it is said they will pass several days andnights, almost without intermission, in quaffing the productions of the vineyards of Kakheti, a district in the mountains east of Tiflis. This wine is by no means of badquality; it is of a deep red colour, so deep that one fanciesit has been tinged with some dye to produce so intense ahue. They are said to consume incredible quantities ofwine on these occasions, and in a fashion that wouldput to shame the drinking triumphs of Ireland, recordedby Sir Jonah Barrington, in days of old, when intoxication was the standard of spirit. The drinking-vesselis a cow's horn, of considerable length, and the point ofhonour is to drain it at a draught. The brethren and convivial rivals of the Georgians in the neighbouring provinces of Imeretia and Mingrelia, instead of a horn, use adelicately-hollowed globe of walnut tree, with a longnarrow tube at the orifice. It holds fully a pint, and likeits companion, the horn, the contents are consumed at asingle gulp. How these globes are hollowed is as great amarvel as the construction of the ingenious Chinese puzzleof ball within ball.

During our short stay at Tiflis we paid a visit to Narses,the venerable patriarch of the Armenian Church. Hismanners and appearance were full of dignity and benevolence–an observation seldom applicable to the clergy ofthe Armenian Church in Persia. Notwithstanding hisextreme age, he conversed with great cheerfulness and evenvivacity, showing much interest in and some knowledge ofthe affairs of Europe. Not suspecting we were Catholics,he amused himself and us too, he no doubt thought, bysneering at the Pope, descanting with great unction on thesupposed infallibility of His Holiness. Having no inclination to enter on polemics, and unwilling to put thePatriarch out of countenance by explaining the real stateof the case, we allowed him to pursue the pleasant themewithout restraint to the top of his bent. There was anappearance of great simplicity throughout the establishment of the Patriarch, indicating, if not poverty, theentire absence of any approach to superabundant revenue.For some unexplained reason he had been compelled bythe Russian authorities to quit his see at Etchmiatzin,the Rome of the Armenians, and fix his residence inTiflis, from whence I have since heard he has been transferred to St. Petersburg. The Patriarch is said to enjoythe highest popularity among his flock, and it is added thathis talents, virtue, and learning, entitle him to all theirveneration. If what we heard was true of the state oflearning among the Armenian divines in general, thisPatriarch must be a black swan among the prelacy andpriesthood of that faith. Still it would be unjust to exactfrom them any great profundity of learning, sunk as theyare in the lethargy and indolence of Persia, Turkey, andRussia. Their morals are reported not to be constructedaccording to the rules of a high or very rigid code; and oftheir theological depth I remember to have heard someamusing anecdotes. The following is one among thenumber:–A priest was asked why Christ suffered on thecross? he reflected some time, and replied, "Wallāh, Ido not know; doubtless he committed some crime for whichhe was punished." Another anecdote is told of a priestin Hamadan, whose daughter was married to an Armenian who went to India on business which detained himsome time. During his absence the bishop heard that thepriest had married his daughter to another man. Ondemanding an explanation of this unapostolic alliance, thediocesan received an indignant reply from the priest that hehad mistaken his character, for he was incapable of aidingor abetting the sin of bigamy, and that all he had donewas to pronounce a blessing for their living happilytogether until her husband should return.

Impatient to conclude our peregrination and reach ourdestination, we lost no time in resuming our journey.Travelling in Georgia is neither luxurious nor commodious, still it immensely surpasses all our experience ofSouthern Russia, particularly in the Mahommedan portionof the province. If horses were scarce at the post-houses,chickens and lambs, yoghourt and kymāk, those savourypreparations from milk so cherished all over Asia, wereabundant. The invasive hordes of the post-houses, too,we heard, were less numerous, ferocious, and bloodthirsty,but we pressed on without stop or stay through a prettycountry with groves of oak-trees scattered about, whichafforded food for enormous droves of swine, in whose fleshthe Georgians take special delight. When we arrived atthe high mountains near the lake Gookcha, we left ourcarriage and walked up the pass. On reaching thesummit of this high range, which forms the limit ofGeorgia proper, we had a noble prospect. On the left,at our feet, lay the beautiful lake of Sevān, the first sheetof water we had seen on this journey; before us werespread Armenia and the plains of Erivan, expanding farto the south; while on the right, dark, towering, andfrowning, lay the Karadagh, the Black Mountains, beyond Kars, stretching towards the Black Sea. Atthis interesting spot the postmaster had hospitably resolved not to confine our gratification to the pleasure ofsight, and had prepared for us a most notable breakfast;at which we revelled on strawberry jam, made fresh fromthe fruit on the mountains, and the far-famed salmontrout, just out of the lake. Long after dark, at the conclusion of a toilsome journey over a detestable road, wereached Erivan. This was formerly the frontier townof Persia, from which kingdom it was conquered twenty-five years ago, after a vigorous resistance, during whichthe Russians were more than once repulsed, and wereobliged to raise the siege. The loss was severe to Persia;as, instead of a strongly fortified town in the possession ofthe Shah, a narrow river now marks the frontier of thetwo countries. The strength of this fortress has beenincreased, it is said, to an extent that would render itscapture exceedingly difficult, or perhaps impracticable,by a Turkish or Persian army. Not satisfied with thestrength thus added to the frontier by the possession ofthis important post, the Russian Government has soughtfor farther security by constructing a fortress, or entrenchedcamp, at a spot named Gumri, a short distance to the northwest of Erivan. Gumri possesses farther interest to atraveller from its vicinity to some remarkable ruins situated within the Turkish frontier, named Ani, which itseems was once the capital of an Armenian kingdom (B.),for even the Armenians once had a kingdom. We orderedhorses to be prepared without delay, resolving to make nostay. While we were engaged in eating our dinner ofcold potatoes in the more than ordinarily desolate post-house, we were surprised and somewhat put to confusion,travel-worn as we were, by a visit from the Governorin full uniform, who announced that most comfortablequarters and an excellent supper were awaiting us in thefort. Long-continued travelling makes one, I thinkirritable and anxious to get forward; otherwise I knownot what demon of perversity took possession of us toinstigate us, in spite of our meagre fare, without prospect of improvement until next day, to refuse the hospitable offer. The worthy Count M—, ever studiousof our comfort, did not disguise his vexation, and toldus we should repent the rejection of the manna inthe wilderness. His prophecy proved true, for at midnight our steeds declined farther work; so there we layseveral hours on the road-side while they were refreshedat a neighbouring hamlet. In the morning we beheld therising sun in great glory gilding the white peak of AghreeDāgh, as the Turks and Persians call Mount Ararat;and then the whole mountain, towering and glittering aloftin its mantle of snow. The country hereabout being flat,and Ararat not being many miles distant, we beheld themountain in all its solitary grandeur. Still it is notwholly solitary, for near it is a smaller mountain calledLittle Ararat, but the difference of height between it andits stupendous companion prevents any rivalry with theresting-place of the Ark. The traditions of the Armenians, who pretend that whoever surmounts the difficulty of the ascent will be rewarded with a sight of afragment of the veritable Ark, has been refuted by someRussian travellers, who within late years have claimedthe honour of being the first to scan the summit of hoaryArarat. Previously to our detention during the night, wehad passed Etchmiatzin, the principal see of the Armenianchurch, and residence of the Patriarch, from whence aredespatched bishops–Russian bishops, in truth-not only toPersia, but to India, English India. In the latter empirethey are doubtless innocuous, for their report to St.Petersburg can only be confirmatory of daily increasingwealth and prosperity; but in Persia it may be otherwise.The loss I suffered in not seeing this famous monastery,I was told, was merely one of fancy and association, asEtchmiatzin, or Utch Kilisiya, meaning Three Churches,as it is termed by the Turks and Persians, consists ofnothing but three very plain monastic buildings orchurches, situated in the midst of barren plains. It is to theArmenians an object of profound veneration from havingbeen, as they relate, the seat of their first patriarch andpatron, St. Gregory. Continuing our journey through alevel plain we reached the venerable, but decayed, city ofNakhshewan, which, according to Armenian tradition,had no less a founder than Noah himself. The tomb ofthe great patriarch is placed in Nakhshewan by theseChristians of strong faith, who, I am told, even pretendto show his grave.

His city is in a state of extreme dilapidation; thepoorest bazars, scantily furnished with the humblest merchandise, and a small population of Armenians, being allthat remains to mark a site which teemed with inhabitantsand wealth. The neat houses of the Russian authoritiesare a relief among the all-pervading decay which meetsthe eye. We lodged in the house of the Governor, asthe captain of a few soldiers stationed here was styled.Our entertainer was most hospitable, and as this was theonly opportunity for seeing anything of the interior of Russian life in a middle class, I must avail myself of it to declare that the impression it left was eminently favourable.The house of our host was good, but plain, substantial,and clean. We lived with him and his family, who fulfilled the ideas of the domesticity we are so prone to boastof as exclusively English. The table was good and perfectly in keeping with the rest of the establishment; stillI hope I shall be pardoned a slight breach of the reserveenjoined by the laws of hospitality if I remark a gastronomic exploit which excited our amusem*nt as well asour astonishment at the powers it revealed. Our hostesshelped herself to a large bowl of soup, fattened in the proportions that Russians love, into which she poured half a bottleof the favourite beverage, London stout, adding eggs andsugar; after duly amalgamating which ingredients, shegave a plate of the fearful mixture to her only child, apretty, delicate-looking, little girl, who seemed highly delighted and refreshed with the compound.

The Governor and his wife must have been heartilytired of us. They were both genuine Muscovites, notspeaking a syllable of any language but their own, and consequently we were unable to communicate with each otherunless by signs and contortions; still they were boththoroughly good-humoured and amiable, submitting withthe best grace to our intrusion. We were detained threedays waiting for notice of the arrival of tents and servantsfrom Tabreez at the frontier on the Aras, distant onlytwenty miles from Erivan. At length the much-wished-forintelligence arrived, and in a few hours we were on thebanks of that stream. Through some mismanagementrespecting our baggage and carriage, the latter beingagain very near meeting a watery grave, we were forced topass the night in Russia, at this quarantine station. A moremiserable spot than Julfa (as this frontier post wascalled) we had not met, unless perhaps on the Kuban.The quarantine master had most obligingly given up theone room in his house for all our party, which room, byan ingenious device, was converted into two, while he andhis subordinates retired to some den, as the quarantinehouses here may truly be called. They are partly subterraneous, the roof being nearly level with the ground,and are entered by a slope which commences severalyards from the door, and forms. an apt conductor for therain as it falls on the ground. The light is admitted bythe door or a hole in the roof, exactly like the houses weafterwards saw in Turkish Armenia, on our return toEngland. Several years previously, my husband hadpassed fourteen days in quarantine at Julfa, in one ofthese caverns; which penance Russia has condemned allunfortunate travellers from Persia to undergo for reasons not fathomable–Persia in general, and above all Tabreez,and the entire province of Azerbijan, being incomparablysuperior in salubrity to Georgia. Unless politics lurk atthe bottom, Julfa is a strange place for the establishment of a sanitary station, and to be the medium forintroducing sound health into Russia, it having a confirmed character for malaria during the summer.

Having expected to dine in Persia, it was only thecharitable hospitality of the quarantine master whichsaved us from being dinnerless. The party was numerousand miscellaneous, presided over by the quarantine master,who was a Spanish gentleman, and a model of courtesyand dignity, which qualities he preserved under verytrying circ*mstances. It was curious and amusing to seehim alternately serving the soup and washing the plates,seated at table. He performed both offices with a solemngravity which a Spaniard only could assume, and whichentirely overcame the feeling of his being engaged in amenial occupation.

We here bade adieu to our attentive and amiablefriend Count M—, who had accompanied us so longa distance. Willingly, had his commander sanctioned it,would he have accepted our invitation to be our guest toTehran, or, at least Tabreez, as he would have had a fairchance of decorating his breast with what a Russian lovesso dearly, another cross or star–I mean the Lion andSun–which it would have been possible to have obtainedfor him. It is strange with what avidity Russian officerscovet these equivocal marks of honour–honourable, andhighly so, when fairly won, but contemptible when bestowed through caprice and favour. I remember perfectly well hearing in Persia of various occasions onwhich the Russian Minister solicited the decoration of theLion and Sun for this —off and that —ski, who hadglorified the arms of Russia in Circassia, and whose featsof arms Persia was called on to reward.

Sunrise came, and in a few minutes we were shoved inthe most primitive of boats over the Aras. We offereda farewell to Russia with grateful feelings for the prodigalattentions which had been showered on us. Russia isoften reviled, but if we were to judge of the national character by what we saw, candour would oblige us todeclare that intelligence, cordiality, and liberality arethe prevailing qualities. Much of course was due toofficial position, but every Englishman, whatever his rank,travelling in Russia has hitherto always met with kindness and attention. This has not been, as I said before, from love or liking; for I doubt not that everyone felt, at least every one of reflection felt, that a crisisbetween the two nations was impending,–that the daywas approaching when it must be decided whether theEast or the West of Europe, the Sclavonian or the Celto-German race, was to be predominant. But I am touching on politics, a domain from which I have resolved toexclude myself. What struck me more than anythingelse in Russia was the disregard of the upper classes forthe feelings of their servants and dependents. Theyseemed to me to look on and to treat them as inferioranimals. They seem to have no rooms allotted fortheir use; the lobby and the ante-room are their apartments, and the bare bench is their bed, We heard acurious fact at Stavropol, which I may as well relate inthis place:–A landed proprietor perceived in one of hisyoung serfs a decided talent and inclination for painting.He sent the lad to Rome, and there education made himnot only a first-rate painter, but also developed his mindon every subject. At the end of some years he wasrecalled to Russia by his master, who found him toovaluable to give him his freedom; and this well-educatedgentleman is actually a slave of the nobleman who senthim to Italy, and obliged to paint for his benefit. Icannot imagine a more melancholy fate.

CHAPTER VI.

Arrival in Persia – Aspect of the country -Want of population – Warlike costume – The unfortunate cow – Marand – The Azan – Our entrance to Tabreez – First impression of a Persian city – Frequent earthquakes – The Ark – Kajar's coffee – Climate of Tabreez – The angel Gabriel's address to Adam in Turkish – Languages in use in Persia.

October 29th.–HERE then we were at length in Persia,the land of Cyrus, Darius, and Alexander. We think ofthe millions of Xerxes, the Great King; we contemplatethe barren scene spread before the eyes, and ask wherethey all came from. Sterile indeed was the prospect, andunhappily it proved to be an epitome of all the scenery inPersia, excepting on the coast of the Caspian. A desolate plain, or rather valley, bounded on each side by rockyor chalky mountains still more desolate–not a tree visibleexcepting the few willows, poplars, and fruit-trees surrounding the villages thinly scattered over the waste.Such is Persia and her scenery in general, excepting thatsometimes a fine village is to be seen smothered in immense gardens, orchards of the most delicious fruits, andvineyards. These bright spots are, however, not numerous; and the curt description of a Scottish traveller ofwhat he saw in Persia is not altogether devoid of truth.According to him, the whole land is divided into two portions–one being desert with salt, and the other desertwithout salt. Fruit, nevertheless, is abundant and cheap,owing to extensive cultivation in the neighbourhood oftowns. Near the villages corn is so widely cultivatedthat extensive plains of wheat and barley are spread on allsides; for desolate as looks the soil, all it wants is population and water to make it fruitful. Sometimes the traveller passes for miles through a plain, or over mountains far remote from human habitation, covered witharomatic plants, from which the most delicious spicyodours are exhaled. Yet the general aspect of the landis one of extreme barrenness; one may often, and veryoften, travel twenty or thirty miles without seeing a habitation or a blade of verdure; and in some parts of Persiathese distances amount to hundreds of miles. Fromwhence, then, did the enormous hosts of yore proceed–the millions of the weeping Xerxes? Greek and Persian exaggeration and bombast, in which both nationsare still supereminent, might account for much; still thecountry must have been in a very different state from whatwe behold it to admit of even a distant approach to thenumbers recorded by historians as having marched to theinvasion of Greece. The incursions from Tartary have nodoubt contributed to reduce the country to its presentdepopulated state. Blood marked their track: above all,the generals sent by Chengeez, the leaders of the Moghulhosts, seemed to have been incarnations of Izraeel and Israfeel, the Angels of Death. Submission or resistance seemsto have been equally fatal; and slaughter–the indiscriminate slaughter of the young and the aged, of man and ofwoman–was the lot of the wretched population in bothcases. In this way the inhabitants of the immense city ofReï, near Tehran, were exterminated. Toos, in Khorassan,suffered the same desolation. Hostile armies, and the slowthough sure hand of oppression, have laid waste theselands, and reduced them to a scanty population, or, to adreary solitude, where the useless wandering Toork andLek erect their miserable habitations.

Before we stepped out of our frail boat I had coveredmy face with a thick veil, and, after much persuasion,induced my two attendant countrywomen to follow theexample. They thought this a great hardship; but Idid not wish to shock the prejudices of the Mahommedans,who would have despised us, if unveiled, as people whollydivested of common propriety. A novel and busy sceneawaited us on the Persian bank of the river, A numberof the mission servants, Gholams, Peeshkhidmets, Ferashes,had been sent from Tehran to meet us. The PrinceGovernor of the province of Azerbijan, in which we nowhad arrived, had despatched from his capital, Tabreez, amehmandar, of the rank of brigadier, with a large suiteand escort, to receive the English Minister on settingfoot in Persia, and to conduct him to Tabreez. . Theneighbouring villages had also sent their contributions ofthe feudal cavalry, holding land on the tenure of militaryservice. A litter, or takhterewan, literally moving sofa,covered with bright scarlet cloth, and supported by twomules also covered with scarlet, together with a kajāwa(a sort of box on each side of a mule, used by women andinvalids travelling) for the women servants, had been sentfor my use; but in my inexperience of Persian roads, Ipreferred remaining in the carriage, from whence I hadthe advantage of gazing at the wild figures and the novelscene before me. A Persian on horseback, prepared forwar or a journey, is to the eye, at all events, a formidablepersonage. He is armed from top to toe: a long gun athis back, a pistol at his waist, another behind, a sword athis left, a tremendous dagger called a kamma at hisright, while at his belt dangles an infinity of horns forvarious sorts of ammunition–powder for loading, powder for priming, balls, &c. Add to this a swarthy visagehalf hid in a long black beard, a tall cap of lambskin,immense trousers, boots, red or black, to the knee, ashaggy yaponcha on his shoulder, a short chibouk underthe flap of his saddle, and the Persian horseman is complete. He and his horse are a brisk, active-looking pair,though hardly equal to our rough friends on the Kuban;yet I have been told that in the last war with Russia thereal irregular cavalry of Persia, that is, the horsem*n ofthe tribes and the Koordish cavalry, never hesitated toface and generally to overcome the Cossacks.

Colonel S— and the Brigadier were old friends; myhusband having many years previously had charge of thedrill and discipline of a regiment of the Shah's guards,in which the Brigadier was a captain. After they hadfinished their salams, and asked each other some twentytimes if their "noses were fat," that is, if their spiritswere good, we set forth. A number of horsem*n rushedon in front, and spread themselves over the plain. Someamong them played Ky-kaj–that is, a horseman gallopsat full speed pursued by another, both unslinging theirlong guns. It is very amusing to observe the foppery,grace, and attitude with which the young cavaliers perform this operation. The leader turns straight round inhis saddle, and aims a shot at his pursuer, who bendsdown below the horse's neck to evade the imaginary ball.This they do at full speed, loading and firing with theutmost dexterity, galloping furiously over the most dangerous and broken ground. I am told that a Persian is avery powerful rider, but that his "hand" is so desperatelyrough as to deprive the horse's mouth of nearly all sensation. He is said to be far inferior to the Hindostaneehorseman in grace and dexterous feats on horseback, suchas jerking out with his lance a tent-pin deeply fixed in theground, the horse at half-speed; or galloping in a circleround his lance, the point on the ground, and the otherend on his arm: but that in energetic, bold riding, whichstops at nothing, the Persian infinitely surpasses the turbaned cavaliers of India. The whole nation seems to rideby instinct. I have often seen our scullions, or otherservants, placed accidentally on a horse for the first timein their lives, scamper away with perfect fearlessness.Others among our cortège played at the jereed for ouramusem*nt. A horseman holds poised in his hand a thickstick, four feet in length; he rushes at full speed, anddashes the point on the ground so as to cause it to reboundhigh in the air, and catches it, if he can, that is to say,before it reaches the earth, though I must confess I neversaw a single jereed player, succeed in this feat. Athorough horseman ought to pick up his fallen jereedwithout leaving the saddle; but the success of this, likethe other exploit, seems to be traditional.

Such is the way in which Persians of rank beguile thetedium of the march; adding to these amusem*nts theresources of chibouks and kaleeans, and sometimes a cupof sugarless coffee. The poor horses suffer; but a Persian, though he seldom flogs his horse, or punishes himfrom ill temper, seems to consider him, by the severity ofhis treatment, as made only to endure fatigues and hardships.

Our route lay through a long defile, over the mostexecrable road–apparently the bed of the mountaintorrent–that ever an unhappy carriage from Long Acrewas destined to roll. It was literally composed of greatblocks of rock, each piece distant from its neighbour twoor three feet, over which the carriage pitched, strained,and creaked like a ship in a gale of wind. All thispitching and heaving caused me the liveliest alarm, lestit should eventuate in a fracture which all Azerbijancould not repair. The Persian postilions, however, tookthe matter with great coolness and great skill. They hadbeen artillery drivers, and treated the vehicle with thesame indifference as their gun, and fortunately no misfortune occurred. A short march of twelve milesbrought us to our camp. The Prince Governor hadmost considerately sent a suite of tents for our accommodation; and on entering the principal one we founda beautiful and most ample collation of fruits andsweetmeats. His Royal Highness seemed resolved weshould imagine ourselves still in Europe. The table(for there was one) was covered with a complete andvery handsome European service in plate, glass, andchina, and, to crown the whole, six bottles of champagnedisplayed their silvery heads, accompanied by a dozenother bottles of the wines of France and Spain. I thoughtwithin myself that this was a strange mode of carryingout the precepts of the Koran, little dreaming of thereal state of the case in Persia. I came to the conclusionthat, under certain circ*mstances, the prejudices of theMussulman had yielded to the hospitality of the Eelyat, ortribeman, to his guest. With Oriental delicacy an anderoon, or haram, had been prepared for me, consisting ofa small tent lined with gaily striped silk, besides tentsfor women servants, the whole surrounded by a high wallof canvas, furnishing a tolerably large enclosure, in whichI could remain in entire seclusion.

Two days' more travelling, of about sixteen miles aday, brought us to the small town of Marand. Onapproaching within two or three miles, we were met bya large concourse of people, headed by the Governor, allcome out to pay their compliments to the English Elchee.This is a general practice in Persia, and its omission isconsidered a slight. To make assurance doubly sure, Iam told the Russians have gone so far as to make a treatyon the subject, defining all the honours, the sweetmeats,the sugar, the visits from the Prime Minister downwards,which they are entitled to exact. It seems we have notbeen so tenacious of our dignity, but I never heard wehad anything to complain of in matters of etiquette; andI can bear personal testimony that the saccharine part ofthe treaty was as scrupulously observed in our regard asif we had been contracting parties.

At every station, from the Aras to Tehran, the firstthing I beheld on entering the room was several poundsof tea, flanked by a suitable number of loaves of sugar,with a whole cargo of sweetmeats, on which the Persianservants regaled themselves with all the greediness ofchildren.

Our entrance to Marand was distinguished by a mostdisagreeable ceremony, which was attempted to be repeated at every village at which we halted, not only onthis but on every succeeding journey during our residencein Persia. On approaching the town, I observed an unfortunate cow in the midst of the crowd, close to theroadside, held down by the head and feet; when wecame within a yard or so of the miserable animal, a manbrandished a large knife, with which he instantly, beforethere was time for interference, severed its head from itsbody. He then ran across our road with the head, allowing the blood to flow on our path in torrents, and wepassed on to encounter a repetition of the same cruelrites performed on various sheep. This ceremony wascalled Korbān, or sacrifice, these poor creatures havingbeen immolated in order that all the misfortunes, evils,and disasters, which might overtake us, should fall onthem; and fall on them they assuredly did. So intentare the Persians on the observance of this mark of reverence to power and station, that the most rigid prohibitioncould hardly prevent its fulfilment. We passed throughthe town, headed by a body of Ferashes, or footmen, carrying long rods, emblems of their office of executionerswhen the bastinado is inflicted. They drove aside thecrowd, shouting from time to time Birooeed, Birooeed!(begone, begone), occasionally using their rods on thosewhose curiosity exceeded their discretion. It was onthe women, however, that these modern lictors, who are,skilled in all the varieties of torture, principally inflictedtheir castigation. If an unlucky damsel, though veiledfrom head to foot, peeped out from a door or over a wall,half-a-dozen of these myrmidons rushed at her, anddrove her away with blows and imprecations. We werelodged in a very commodious house, belonging to a holysyed or descendant of the Prophet, whose countenancedid not present a very amiable aspect when he beheld aherd of Kafirs, as he deemed us, taking possession of hisdomicile to the exclusion of his own family. The wordGiaour, so usual in Turkey, is unknown in Persia, unlesson the borders of Turkey, although perhaps derived fromthe Persian word Gebr, meaning the fire-worshippers ofthe ancient race. The syed was constantly passing toand fro, casting black looks at the intruders, while theladies of his family peeped at us from a distant stablewhere they had taken up their temporary abode, dyingwith curiosity to pay a visit to a woman who wore"trousers with one leg," but interdicted by the presenceof strangers. This is the name which Persian womenhave given to gowns and petticoats of European fashion,to distinguish them from their own trousers. In themorning, however, before the hour of departure, a tolerable fee for the use of his house relaxed the grimnessof our host's features; and smiles, bows, and ejacul*tions of "Khoosh geldin, seffā geturdin" (welcome, yourpresence is an ornament), showed that his bigotry wasnot proof against even an infidel's gold. But to dojustice to the Persians, it must be allowed that to travellers they are most hospitable. This was the only occasion on which I observed any reluctance to receive us asinmates; and I heard from the other European residentsof Tehran, that, excepting in Mazenderan, where thebigotry of the inhabitants, owing to their remoteness andlittle intercourse with strangers, is supreme, they neverexperienced any difficulty in finding accommodation in thevillages in any part of Persia. It was at Marand that Ifirst heard the Azān, or call of the Mussulmans to prayer,so solemn and impressive, especially when well chanted,for it is in fact a chant. On the roof of a neighbouringmosque, which from its modest, unpretending appearanceresembled a private house, I perceived a Moolla whosehead, instead of the ordinary black lambskin cap, wascovered with a large green turban to show his descentfrom Mahommed. He turned towards Mecca, and placing his open hands to his head, proclaimed with a loudsonorous voice, "Allāh ho akbar," which he repeated fourtimes; then "Eshhedo enna la illaha illellāh"–(I bearwitness there is no God but God),–twice; then "Eshhedoenna Mahammedan resool Allāh"–(I bear witness thatMahommed is the Prophet of God), twice; then I "bearwitness that Ali, the Commander of the Faithful, is thefriend of God," &c. If a Persian were to proclaim thelast sentiment aloud in any part of Turkey it would costhim his life. It is the shibboleth between the greatMussulman sects of Soonnee and Sheah, the former beingprofessed by the Turks and the majority of the Mussulman world, and the latter by the Persians. There seemsto be little or no difference in doctrine between the tworeligions, excepting that, by the Sheahs, Ali, the son-in-law of Mahommed, is regarded as his successor; while,according to their rivals, Abubekr, Omar, and Osman takeprecedence. I may add that the Soonnees eat hares andporcupines, which the Persians consider an abomination.The point of dissension being small, the rivalry and animosity are great. The Persians, however, fare worst inthe dispute; for Mecca, Kerballa, and all the other shrinesof Sheah veneration and pilgrimage, are in the hands ofthe Turks. The Iranees are forced on such occasions toignore their own faith and adopt the outward forms ofSoonneeism. This laxity is lawful and even prescribed inthe Sheah creed, but is never practised among Turks orother Soonnees, who admit of no concealment or equivocation in matters of faith, even to escape from the crownof martyrdom.

The single toll in the knell for transporting the deadto their last earthly abode arouses, perhaps from association, ideas of profound solemnity; so too does thetrumpet echoing through the camp when it ushers thedragoon to his grave; but above both, in solemn awe,is the keening as it sweeps afar over the dales and hillsof Munster, announcing that a Gael has been gatheredto his fathers. The Azan excites a different impression. It raises in the mind a combination of feelings, ofdignity, solemnity, and devotion, compared with whichthe din of bells becomes insignificant. It is an imposingthing to hear in the dead of the night the first sounds ofthe Muezzin proclaiming "Allāh ho Akbar–Mighty isthe Lord–I bear witness there is no God but God!" St.Peter's and St. Paul's together can produce nothingequal to it.

Three easy stages over a very tolerable road, throughvalleys with mountains on both sides, sometimes near,sometimes more distant, brought us to Tabreez on the2nd of November. Here preparations on a grand scalewere made for a solemn entry, from which I, however, asbelonging to the inferior and ignoble class of womankind,was excluded, though I was permitted to gaze on thescene at a distance. It was difficult to say how manythousand people had assembled, or what class of personshad not come forth to do honour to the Queen of England's representative. There were princes and priests,and merchants, and moollas, and mountebanks, and dervishes, and beggars; there were Koordish and Toorkhorsem*n of the tribes, and soldiers, and Ghoolams; inshort there was everything and everybody, but there wasnot a single woman, for in Persia a woman is nobody.The cavalcade began four miles from the town, and eachstep brought a fresh reinforcement to the procession, oristikbal, as it is called. The visitors approached theenvoy, and after paying their compliments and congratulations, rode by his side or fell behind according to theirrank. The advance was slow, the dust stifling, the fatigueof complimenting several thousand people overwhelming;but careful of the exhausted envoy, and the Russian treatyon etiquette moreover not being out of his view, his royalhighness the Prince Governor had prepared a tent midway where the grandees of the istikbal alighted, smokedkalleeans and chibouks, drank tea and coffee, and partookof the everlasting sweetmeats. To horse again, with agreater crowd than ever! more beggars, more lootees ormountebanks with their bears and monkeys, more dervishes vociferating for inām or bakhshish, heapingpraises and blessings without measure on Alā HezretPadshah e Inglis–her Majesty the Queen of England,and Junābe Elchee–his Excellency the Envoy, anduttering loud benedictions on Hezret Eesā and Hezret eMiriam–the Lord Jesus and the Blessed Mary. Theselatter benedictions surprised me, but I afterwards learnedthat, with the exception of the denial of his divinity, andthe assertion of his being second to Mahommed, and toMahommed only, the veneration of Mussulmans for ourSaviour nearly equals our own. They rarely allude tohim without using the words Hezret Eesā alehoossalām–the Lord Jesus, on whom be blessings. Theybelieve him to have been a special creation of the Almighty,like Adam, by his will alone. Their reverence for theBlessed Virgin too is not much inferior to the homage ofthe church of Rome, the Russo-Greek church, and allthe churches of the East. The tall white lily is, inPersian, called the Goole Miriam, or Flower of Mary;and in a Persian painting representing the Annunciation,lilies are growing round her.

The throng now reached the town; and here began thetug of war. The deep broad ditch surrounding the citywas crossed by a narrow causeway, over which the multitude passed. The leaders had no difficulty; but whenthe reckless crowd arrived–for a Persian on horseback isthoroughly reckless–every one pressing forward, despiteof kicking and fighting horses, the confusion and uproarmay be imagined. However, they all got through at last,though whether with any killed and wounded, or not, Icannot tell; and I brought up the rear, and entered the citycovered with dust, and hot and tired. Anything moredismal can hardly be conceived. The images of youthare not easily effaced; and the 'Arabian Nights' and'Lalla Rookh' will hold their place in the memory,whether it will or not. But once inside the gate of aPersian city, the charm is dissolved, the magician's wandis broken, and reality takes the place of romance, whichis destroyed for ever. Half the city seemed depopulated;there were large spaces wholly vacant, with deep excavations on either hand, from which the earth had been dugto build houses. Dead dogs, and here and there a deadhorse half eaten, offended more than one sense. Thehouses were frightful. Constructed of brown unburntbricks, looking exactly like mud, and without a singlewindow to the street, they presented a most gloomy aspect.This is a general picture of a Persian town; and be itremembered that Tabreez is one of the best and richestcities in the whole kingdom. As we approached theEuropean and Armenian quarter some improvement beganto be visible. A few of the houses had windows, here andthere an ornamental gateway appeared, and some attemptat embellishment was made by means of paint. Stillthe sombre brick and a general air of decay, maintainedsupremacy. It is nevertheless only the outside of aPersian house which looks so comfortless. The interiorof those belonging to the better classes are very commodious, and often of great size.

On arriving at the British Government-house the firstthing that I saw was a whole roomful of sweetmeats–sugar-candy and refined sugar–sent by the Prince Governor as a mark of congratulation. Every festival iscelebrated in this way. The Queen's birthday, our new-year's day, the Persian new-year's day, invariably broughtin each succeeding year a supply from the Shah, carriedby his majesty's ferashes through the most public parts ofthe town, on immense trays, covered with embroideredsilk. The etiquette was to send back the covers, whichI confess I used to do with reluctance; for they weresometimes very handsome. An omission in these mattersis looked on as a slight, which the Russians are carefulin avoiding, by notifying to the minister for foreign affairshis imperial majesty's birthday, fête-day, saint's-day,and the other host of festivals which the Muscovites loveto solemnise. These honours are rather costly, the bearers of these sweetmeats not being at all satisfied unlessthey receive a donation to the amount of twelve or fifteenpounds sterling. His majesty, who is of a very affableand amiable disposition, during his hunting excursionsnear Tehran often sends a few partridges or hares to theforeign representatives, as a mark of his favour; and it islittle exaggeration to say that each head of game costs itsweight in silver.

We passed five days in Tabreez. The weather was cold and cheerless, and I remained most of the time insolitary seclusion; while my husband was employed thewhole time in receiving and returning visits. A Persianvisit is a formidable ceremony, involving a prodigious consumption of time. Pipes, coffee; pipes, tea; and thenpipes twice again, is the usual routine. They are avivacious, intelligent people; and I am told the menare often agreeable in conversation, relating anecdotes,and quoting passages from poetry and history withreadiness and animation. Still a Persian visit is saidto be in general extremely tiresome. The conversationof a visitor is entirely about himself, his maladies,his disasters; his pay has been stopped; his mill has beenseized; his stream of water has been carried off; hisgarden has been pledged; his debts are burdensome; theinterest of a hundred per cent. is oppressive, &c. &c., tothe end of the chapter. Like a Frenchman, whom he issaid to resemble in many points, his thoughts are centredin his own person; and he seems to think his affairs areas interesting to others as to himself. On hearing thosedetails of bodily ailments we were often reminded of thelines–

"Some men employ their health–an ugly trick,
In telling us how oft they have been sick;
And give us, in recitals of disease,
A doctor's trouble–but without the fees."

Tabreez is represented to be a city of great antiquity.Hanway, who travelled about the year 1730, describes itto have been in former times one of the finest cities of theEast. Its environs, many miles in extent, to the S.W.,are covered with mounds, heaps of ruins and rubbish,denoting the positions of ancient structures. It possessessome interest as being the site of one of the cities nearwhich Mark Antony is supposed to have passed in his retreat from Persia. Three centuries ago it is reportedto have contained five hundred thousand inhabitants; butwar, anarchy, and earthquake have sadly reduced itspopulousness. In the last century it was two or threetimes devastated by the last-named calamity. The citywas nearly overthrown in 1721; and tens of thousandsperished on that occasion. Even now repeated shocks arefelt, sometimes to a most alarming extent, every year,warning the citizens against a catastrophe. In many housesthe precaution has been adopted of constructing a woodenroom as a place of refuge in the hour of danger. I found,to my great satisfaction, having no experience in earthquakes, an apartment of this kind in the government-house, but to which happily there was no need to haverecourse. A year afterwards, in Tehran, while lying illin an upper room, I felt a curious sensation, like theshaking of a steamboat. I rushed out of the room, down the stairs; for I suspected what it was, and feared a repetition of it. There was, however, only one shock; andI never felt any other during my stay in Persia.

Though fallen from its high estate, even now Tabreezis considered one of the finest cities in Persia, both inpopulation and wealth. It is situated at the end of a largeplain, bounded on the north by high hills, and on thesouth at some miles distant, by the lake Shahee. The inhabitants are supposed to exceed 100,000 in number; buta large portion live in suburbs outside the walls. Thecity is nearly surrounded by immense gardens and orchards, producing in perfection and profusion almost allthe fruits of Southern Europe, particularly melons andgrapes. It is a city of extensive commerce, being thegreat mart between Turkey, Russia, and Central Persia.The extent of its trade may be appreciated from the fact,that English goods to the value of nearly a million sterling are, I am told, annually imported within its walls;whence they are again exported to Central Persia, Khorassan, the shores of the Caspian, to the Toorcomans, andeven to Khiva. These imports consist chiefly of Manchester goods and cloth; and it is a curious circ*mstancethat a very large portion should be imported to Persiaby Greeks. The great houses of commerce are chieflyGreek; and from some sort of national or natural impulsethey all have adopted Russian protection. Themost remarkable building that I saw in Tabreez was anenormous pile of brick, some seventy feet high, situated inwhat is called the Ark, or Citadel, which is supposed tobe exceedingly ancient. The use to which this now ruinous edifice has been lately converted, is that of castingfrom its summit women who have been guilty of the murder of their husbands. This crime, if not as common, orat all events not as often detected as in England, is notunfrequent in Persia. The jealousies and animosities ofthe haram often drive its inmates to vengeance by meansof the "Kahwa e Kajaree," the Kajar's coffee. Kajāris the tribe-name of the reigning dynasty; and the allusionis to the poisoning of the cup, which that family has beenaccused of practising.

One scarcely expects to meet in the north of Persia reminiscences of the caliphs of Bagdad; yet it seems thatTabreez was a favourite residence of our old acquaintancethe Commander of the Faithful, Haroun al Raschid, ormore correctly Haroon ur Rasheed, who sleeps at Meshed.On leaving Tabreez, about the 6th of November, I wasshown, not far from the gate, the ruins of a once beautiful mosque, covered and faced with enamelled azure,yellow, and black tiles. Tradition ascribes its construction to Zobeida.

Though only in the 38th degree of latitude, the cold atTabreez, owing to its elevation above the sea, is intenseand from the same reason the heat in summer is temperate.Its height is more than 4500 feet; and the thermometerfalls to 15° below zero. Add to this, that during wintera violent wind frequently blows from the north, producinga degree of cold which deters the inhabitants from leavingtheir houses, and causing the death of many unfortunatetravellers who fail to reach a place of refuge at night.The climate is healthy, in spite of the cholera, whichoften, in conjunction with the plague, makes horribleravages.

This reminds me of a curious circ*mstance which Iheard relative to the women of the upper classes ofTabreez. Instead of being stricken with fear at therumour of these scourges, these capricious ladies hail withglee the approach of cholera or plague, which to thembrings freedom and release from monotony. Weariedwith every-day life, they joyfully prepare to quit the cityand seek refute in the yēïlāks (the high summer mountain lands), in which and in a tent-life all Persians delight.Here there is comparative freedom from restraint; andhere the ladies of Tabreez enjoy the charms of listening topurling streams and the pleasure of eating lamb kebēb(roast) fresh from the flock.

It surprises one to find oneself in almost the chief cityof Persia, and yet not to hear a word of Persian spoken.In the streets and bazars Turkish is the only languagewhich strikes the car. It seems to be exceedingly roughand uncouth. By way of illustrating its harshness andfitness for command, the Persians say that when Adamwas doomed to quit Paradise, the angel Gabriel conveyedthe commands from heaven to the first sinners in Persian,but without effect, for Adam refused to obey. Gabrielthen tried Arabic, Sanscrit, and all other languages nowknown, without result, till, in despair and in ire, he roaredout in Turkish "Kiopek oghlee, chik boorden" (Be off,you dog!), on which, Adam scampered off without fartherdelay. Turkish is so completely the colloquial language of Azerbijan, that, excepting in towns, and eventhere only among the better classes, Persian is notunderstood. The dialect of Turkish used in Azerbijan is not very unlike that spoken at Constantinople;but in the latter city the pronunciation has been sorefined, polished, and effeminated, as one may say–while in Persia the original harsh, vigorous accent hasbeen preserved–that the two nations are scarcely comprehensible to each other. Turkish, I found, is all but universal in Persia. It is the prevailing language to withina hundred miles of Tehran, as far as Kasveen, where itis as constantly employed as Persian. At court Persianis used on state occasions; but at other times the royalfamily, amounting to two or three thousand princes andprincesses, delight in the tongue which their forefathersbrought from the walls of China, or even from Pekin; forthere is a tradition that the tribe of Kajār, like the valiantEnglish Varangians in Constantinople, formed the bodyguard of the sovereigns of the Celestial Empire. Thecentral and southern parts of Persia are full of Toorktribes, who have preserved their language. In theCaspian provinces of Geelan and Mazenderan, dialects ofPersian are the prevailing tongues. The mountaineersbelonging to the genuine Persian tribes of Koordsand Leks still preserve their native idioms, and withthe above, seem to be the only inhabitants of Persiaamong whom the Toork invaders have failed to planttheir language.

If Chinese be the most extensively written language inthe world, since millions speaking different dialects arestill able to read the same character, it may be difficultto determine whether English, Spanish, or Turkish bethe most diffused orally throughout the world. FromBelgrade to the Wall of China, the traveller who is masterof the language of Toork Yāfet oghlee–Toork, the sonof Japhet, as his descendants fondly believe him to be–need be at no loss. With varying modifications, he willfind Turkish throughout that vast extent, either in thesoft lisping of Constantinople, or in the rough gutturals ofthe Toorkomans, the Uzbeks, the Kirghees, or the rovingToork tribes of Mongolia.

Azerbijan, of which Tabreez is the capital, is the mostvaluable province of Persia, and is bounded on the northby Russia and on the east by Turkey. In climate, fertility of the soil, population, and also, I hear, in the militaryqualities, the vigour, and energy of the inhabitants, it farexcels the other parts of Persia. Its surface is undulatingand intermingled with mountains of great height, whichafford a cool retreat during summer to the wandering andpastoral tribes with which the province abounds, as wellas to their flocks. Unlike most other parts of Persia,large tracts of cultivated land are dēm, or unirrigated,the necessary moisture being derived from dews or occasional rain, and corn is produced in such abundance that alarge quantity is annually exported to Georgia, which isdeficient in the supply of that grain. Azerbijan aboundsalso in mineral wealth. The district of Karadāgh containsmines, where copper and iron are procurable to an extentalmost unlimited. The iron ore is in some places so pure,that the mountains are said to be formed of that substance,Such is the perversity of Persians, that with copper in profusion at their own doors, it is only lately they ceased to importthat mineral from Turkey. Sir Henry Bethune broughtout several years ago a steam-engine and a number ofartificers to work these mines; but everything decays inPersia, and so too has this undertaking. Besides Tabreez,Azerbijan contains several considerable towns, such asOoroomeeya, Khoce, Ardebil, Maragha, where HoolakooKhan, the grandson of Chengeez, established his capital,and constructed a famous observatory. The inhabitants arechiefly Toorks, and are supposed, like the Turks, to be thedescendants of the Seljookee and Mongolian invaders. TheRussians overran this province in the last war, which occurred thirty years a go. All the chief towns were in theirpossession, and fortunately for Persia, they evacuated it,but only on the payment of more than two millions sterling–a heavy disbursem*nt for a Persian monarch. Ihave heard that Russian officials have often expressed theirregret at a moderation, as they termed it, proceeding fromtheir ignorance. They did not then know, I have beentold, the value of Azerbijan, its resources in corn, and thecapacity of its inhabitants for the military profession. Theyforgot that, holding this province in their hands, Persiawould be for ever cut off from direct communication withEurope; and they did not foresee the commerce in Englishand other European merchandize, which a few years laterwas to spring up and attain such unexpected proportionsbetween Constantinople and Trebizond, and which, passingthrough Erzeroom. and Byazeed to Azerbijan, would undersell their manufactures at Asterabad and Meshed. Sojealous is Russia of this intercourse and of the lucrativetransit trade carried on through Turkey with such profitto the latter empire, that she has more than once formedschemes for attracting it to her own territory, by makingPoti and Redout Kaleh, in the Black Sea, on the coast ofMingrelia, free ports. She never was able to succeed inthis plan. Commerce is so free in Turkey, that in spiteof the superior safety of the road through Georgia–inspite of the danger on the frontier of Turkey and Persiafrom Koords and other freebooters, who have repeatedlypillaged immense caravans–in spite of the terrible winterjourney from Trebizond to Tabreez–the Russian Government has never been able to induce the traders to subjectthemselves to the vexations inseparable from intercoursewith Russian Custom-house authorities.

CHAPTER VII.

Mode of travelling – Village houses – Economical fires – Mephiticsprings – Savalandagh – Shrine of a prophet – Toorkomanchall– Snow drift – Journeys of the couriers – Struggles through thesnow – The "Leopard's Pass" – Tribe of Shaheesevens migrating– Sagacious donkeys and hideous old women – Sultaneeya and itsdome – Iljaëtoo Khan – Mode of irrigation in Persia – Kasveen– Our host – The Old Man of the Mountain – Alamoot – Huntingseat of Fetteh Ali Shah – Innumerable family of that monarch – Hall of Audience – Agha Mahommed Khan Kajjar – Plucking outof 70,000 pairs of eyes – Waiting for good luck – My entry intoTehran – Entry of Colonel Sheil.

ON the 5th of November we resumed our journey, travelling by easy stages, which, with a diminution of fatigue,were a great increase of ennui. The barren hills and nearlyequally barren plains of Persia produce a most somniferouseffect on the plodding wayfarer, particularly if he travels,as I did, in a carriage at a walking pace. The roadwas described to be excellent, still it reduced our vehicleto the slowest pace. Even this was preferable to the ordinary mode of travelling among ladies, shut up in a largebox, called a takhterewān, suspended between two mules,in which one creeps along with ambassadorial dignity, ina way that put one's patience to a severe trial. In amountainous country this same box exposes the inmate tosome danger and a great deal of terror. On a narrowroad, with a deep precipice on one side without a parapet,and mules that neither prayers, blows, nor abuse willremove from the very edge, one sees the box hanging overthe yawning gulf, and the occupant dares not move lest thebalance be disturbed, and she wilfully seek her own salvation before due time. The two English maids weremounted one on each side of a mule in the two small boxesof a kajāva, where, compressed into the minutest dimensions, they balanced each other and sought consolation inmutual commiseration of their forlorn fate in this barbarian land.

I doubt if our hardships will excite the sympathy theydeserve. We rose at six, shivering 5000 feet above thesea, in an Azerbijan village room, quite comfortless, atthat hour at all events, and crawled along until ten, whenwe found ready for us, pitched near a stream in some quietnook, a very small tent, called an aftabgerdān, or sun-turner, in which denomination correctness has been sacrificed to conciseness, as it is the tent which turns round to catch or exclude the sun's rays, according to the season.Here, seated on the ground, we had breakfast, and werewarmed into life and consciousness by that genuine friendof mankind, whether the thermometer be at 20° or 120°,hot tea. When the horses of our numerous party wererested, we continued our journey until evening, and passedthe night at a village house, to which our bedding hadpreviously been carried, and then spread on the ground.From the time I entered Persia until I quitted it, theground, whether in house or in tent, was my bedstead.This is the universal practice of the country, and, excepting that it affords no protection from scorpions, centipedes, and tarantulas, it is to be recommended. Nervouspeople take various precautions against these unwelcomevisitors. I knew a foreign young lady, who had a Cossack,sword in hand, keeping watch all night in her room, readyto slay the invaders. The bed tied up into a bundle, witha gaudy silk cover during the day, makes an excellent sofain the corner of a tent. These houses are often good, butsometimes exceedingly disagreeable from the miscellaneousnature of the occupants. A thriving Persian village can,however, generally supply a tenement by no means tobe contemned. The principal room where the familyresides is carpeted with felts; a high pile of bedding,tied into bundles, occupies one corner, while another cornercontains chests or immense jars, such as the "forty thieves"found a shelter in, filled with grain, peas, or beans.Strings of apricots, grapes, and onions hang in festoonsfrom the ceiling; shelves are cut into the earthen walls,on which are placed stores of quinces, apples, pears, andmelons, besides sundry cups and saucers, with, if possible,a few decanters and tumblers of coarse Russian glass,which form the pride of the family; one end of the roomis occupied by a fireplace, over which are hung inscriptions containing quotations from the Koran, or from someof the Persian poets. Altogether there is a considerableair of substantial comfort in these houses, which I oftenenvied for our countrymen. Sometimes these fireplaceswere constructed on principles so anti-Rumfordian, thatwe were forced to have recourse to the Persian economicalsubstitute for a fire in a grate, called a koorsee, and a verycomfortable resource it is. A small quantity of charcoal,well burnt to remove its deleterious effects, is placed on aflat copper dish; this is covered with a large wooden frame,open at the sides, two feet high, over which a large waddedquilt is spread, to exclude the cold air and prevent theescape of the warmth inside. The family sits round thekoorsee with the legs and arms under the quilt, where theheat is considerable. I have often wished our soldiers atSebastopol, during the memorable winter, could have procured this simple manner of protecting themselves fromcold. Once when travelling alone during winter, my husband was seized with acute illness, which forced him totake refuge in a village, where a barber gave him a lodging.He passed the cold and painful night reclining under akoorsee, the opposite side of which was occupied by theloudly snoring, friendly barber. The whole family, in aPersian household, passes the winter nights in this manner;but sometimes an unlucky wight gets his head under thequilt, and wakes no more.

The second day from Tabreez we crossed the pass ofShiblee, near which are some caverns containing springs,still more mephitic than those of canine reputation atLago Lugano, near Naples. Descending the pass weentered the extensive plain of Oojan, the Champs de Marsof Persia, where formerly the Persians used to receive instruction in military manœuvers. On the left lay a veryrugged range of mountains, called Booz Koosh, or Goatkiller, separating us from the valley of Serab, remarkablefor its mineral hot-springs, efficacious, if we are to confidein local belief, in curing all the ailments of humanity.Overhanging this valley is a famous mountain, calledSavalandāgh, reputed to be one of the highest mountainsin Persia. In the earlier part of his career in this countrymy husband was quartered in this valley (C.), and from himI learned the following particulars concerning the abovemountain. Its slopes on the northern side are frequentedin spring and summer by the large wandering Toork tribeof Shaheesevens (Shah's friends). In winter they pitch theirtents in the flat, sultry, but luxuriant plains of Moghan,now belonging to Russia. This district is reputed to havebeen traversed by Pompey, whose army was so infested bysnakes as to be forced to move their camp from theseprairies. It is reported by the Persians that at the presentday these plains are filled during summer with snakes,scorpions, and other reptiles, which, added to the noxiousclimate at that season, render them uninhabitable.

Savalan Dagh, or mountain, is remarkable for containing at its summit the remains of a Mussulman pyghamber,or prophet, which lie in a small grotto exposed to the viewof pilgrims. As the top of Savalān is above the line ofperpetual congelation, his saintship has been miraculouslypreserved whole and entire, face, features, and beard, tothe admiring gaze of his devotees. On my husband'sasking a moolla how and when the pyghamber hadreached his elevated sepulchre, he replied that traditionhad preserved no record on the former point, but that itwas known he was a prophet subsequent to the "LordMahommed." It was retorted that the moolla was talkingkoofr, infidelity–it being a precept of the Mussulmansthat Mahommed was the completion of all the prophets,and that none could succeed him. "That is true," saidthe moolla, in some confusion that his divinity shouldundergo correction from a Feringhee.

On the fourth day we reached Toorkomanchaee, avillage showing every sign of prosperity, owing to itsgood fortune in having constantly become the property ofeach successive holder of the grand-vezeership, and beingthereby saved from the encroachments of troops marchingto and from the capital, to which the other villages on thehigh road are subject, and also exempt from the exactionsof travellers with orders of seeoorsāt, meaning an allowanceof provisions and fodder. This is one of the most harassing, and probably one of the most ancient abuses to whichPersians are subject. A man of rank travelling, or agovernor proceeding to his post, receives an order entitlinghis numerous retinue to be supplied with provisions of allkinds, for which not a fraction is paid. Double thequantity required is demanded, as well as a variety ofarticles which the unfortunate villagers never heard of,and which, to use their own phrase, "their grandfathersnever saw in a dream"–such as saffron, tea, cloves, cinnamon, &c. A compromise in money is generally made,and his excellency departs satisfied. It used to be thepractice to grant seeoorsāt to all foreign missions proceeding to the Court; but the hardship it entailed on the villagers, and the odium and bitter feelings it excited, wereso obvious, that the practice has ceased as far as the English mission is concerned.

At Toorkomanchaee we lived in a house outside thevillage, which brought to mind associations of a mournfulcharacter. Here it was that Persia was crushed by Russia.In this house, built expressly for the accommodation ofthe Russian representative, was signed the treaty which,twenty-eight years ago, concluded the last war betweenRussia and Persia. (D.)

The house consisted of two small rooms opposite to eachother, in one of which I was told resided the Russianplenipotentiary, and in the other his Persian colleague.The latter was occupied by our two women servants, andwas constructed with such attention to comfort that thesky was visible up the chimney.

We had made preparation for a long march, as it wascalled, next day; but during the night so violent a stormof snow arose, accompanied by a boorān, that movementwas impracticable. A boorān in the north of Persia is aterrible thing. It is a heavy fall of snow, with a violentwind, causing a drift which blinds the traveller, and effectually conceals the road. Many lives are lost each winterin this way. I have heard of several instances where thebenumbed and wayworn traveller was saved only by thebarking of a dog, the bleating of a sheep or the tinklingof a mule bell, when he was on the point of yielding to hisfate, not knowing he was within reach of aid.

It must be a fearful thing to be caught in a desolateplain or mountain side by one of these awful storms, noplace of refuge near, the thermometer at 10° or 20°below zero, and the howling blast piercing to the vitals.I have often thought with pity and surprise of the Persiancouriers of the mission, and their wonderful journeys toErzeroom. One of them presents himself in the month ofJanuary, muffled in sheepskin coat and cap, receives hisbags, and goes forth alone on his terrible journey of nearly800 miles; and after a rest of perhaps two days at Erzeroom, returns again, worn out by fatigue and want ofsleep, nearly blind, and "burnt by the snow," as theexpressive phrase is in Persian. Woe betide him if hecannot show good reasons for having been more than tendays in performing the trip each way. As the post-horsesare miserable, this can only be done by being almost constantly on horseback, and by sleeping in this position,which I am told that even English travellers by chaperee,as it is called, soon acquire the habit of doing. Some ofthese mission couriers make extraordinary journeys. Oneof them, named Malik Mahommed Beg, used frequentlyto perform the 800 miles in seven days. It is only bybeing exceedingly weather-wise, and knowing the symptoms of an approaching boorān, that these men are able toescape the dangers of a winter journey. With all thisrisk their pay is small, not exceeding 40l. a-year. Thereare, however, a few illicit gains, which a Persian loves sodearly, in the shape of traffic in small portable objectsbetween Persia and Turkey. In Persia very hard ridingis universal. Sir John M'Neill, I have heard, once rodefrom Tehran to Ispahan, 260 miles, in three days, on thesame horse, a pony which cost 10l. On another occasionhe rode 400 miles, from Tehran to Tabreez, in fourdays, on post-horses. But an English sergeant surpassedher Majesty's Minister; having performed the samedistance in less than three days.

To return to my itinerary. The succeeding morningbrought us a genuine Persian winter day, cold, cloudless,bright, but the quantity of snow seemed to preclude allhope of moving the carriage. The mehmandar, however,swore all the oaths ever on the lips of a Persian, thatmove we should, and move we did. A Persian is perpetually swearing, either by the Almighty or the Prophet,or Ali or Hoossein, or his beard, or his or your life ordeath. The women are as profane and emphatic in theirdiscourse as the other sex. A favourite and amusingmode of asseveration among the syeds, especially in testifying to an untruth, is "Beh ser e jeddam" (by the headof my grandfather), meaning Mahommed; indeed it is acommon adage that the greatest swearers are the greatestliars. On the present occasion, luckily for us, our mehmandar reversed this popular saying; and it was amusingto see the struggles of himself and his attendants to getus through the deep snow. He sprang off his horse, andinsisted on yoking him to the carriage, and the good steed,so docile are the Persian horses, immediately began to pullwith the utmost goodwill, though in the course of hisexistence he had never before seen such a machine. Thecold was intense; the long beards and moustaches of thePersians were frozen, and looked as white as the snow.Long after dark we reached the village of Khoosh Boolak,where we were glad to warm and rest ourselves after ananxious, toilsome day. Two days later we reachedMeeana, famous, or infamous, for its bugs–a bite fromone of which kills with the slow lingering death, such ashusbands and wives in England love mutually to impart.We spent half the night in precautions against a danger,which many attribute to fever, indigenous to this unwholesome place. That morning we crossed the high pass ofKaplan Kooh, the Leopard's Mountain, from the summitof which we had a far-reaching view of the provinces ofAzerbijan and Irak, of which the Leopard is the boundary.The narrowness of the road over the pass raised somedoubt if the carriage could be got across without beingtaken off the wheels, so I took refuge in my takhterewan.Near the top, on looking down the precipice over whichI hung, I saw the remains of dead horses who had slippedinto the abyss; this was so discouraging, that I kept myeyes shut until we reached a kind of shelter at the summit.

Two days more brought us to the town of Zenjān, ofwhich I remember nothing remarkable, excepting theprodigious size of its onions, far exceeding anything produced in Spain or Portugal. But all Persian towns are alike; all built of unburnt, unpainted brick, all windowless, and all in a state of decay. The only differenceamong them is, that one has a fine old mosque, whichanother has not.

Nov. 12th.–Our road to-day was enlivened by a largeparty of Shaheesevens, with their families, their flocks andtheir herds, and all their worldly goods, migrating from Iknow not where, to the plains of Moghan, north of Ardebil, before alluded to; where a temperate climate andluxuriant pastures invited these dwellers in tents to passthe winter. There were camels, horses, asses, sheep, cattle, cats, dogs, men, women, and children. The camelsnumbered at least one hundred, and carried the heavybaggage, consisting of the tents and cooking utensils. Thegreater part of the men were mounted either on horsebackor on camels; but many of the women were on foot,attended by their large shaggy dogs, the faithful guardiansof the camp at night. According to the general customof the eelyat women, their faces were uncovered, andthey looked with a careless indifference, equal to that ofEuropeans, at our cavalcade. The only individuals whoseemed to think that our party formed an unusual sight,were the donkeys, who invariably stopped and turnedround to gaze after the strangers and their novel equipage, showing how much calumniated are their intellectand sagacity. Few, very few among the women, even themost youthful, had any claim to beauty; exposure andsevere labour having wholly effaced the delicacy of featureswhich nature intended to be comely. The middle-agedwomen were exceedingly ugly, and those of advancedyears hideous. The Shaheesevens are wealthy, and theyexhibited eelyat life under a favourable aspect; butamong less fortunate tribes it is far otherwise.

In England our associations with wanderers in tents arefull of romance and ideality; we dream of pastoral life,flocks and herds, and amiable shepherds–Abraham andIsaac waiting for angels' visits–Esau, Rebecca, and Ruth.The reality is very different. In the mountains nearTehran I often passed close to small eelyat encampments, and I saw enough to cure me of any fancies anddreams I may have formerly cherished. Squalor and dirtwere the general characteristics of the inmates of theseoolooses, or camps. The women were in rags, haggardand careworn; the children emaciated from want ofnourishment. Among the wealthy tribes, and amongthe Koords and Toorkomans, no doubt it is often otherwise. The tent life, with its freedom and independence,must have its charms: but in Persia the wealthy tribesare the exception. The Toork wandering tribes are oftenrich; but those of real Persian descent, the Loors, Bekhtiarees, Mafees, and Nana Kellees, are extremely poor.

After leaving Zenjān, we entered the high and extensiveplain of Sultaneeya, famous for its pastures, and consequently most attractive to the eelyats (tribes) with whichit is crowded in spring. The cold here in winter isdescribed to be intense. The village of Sultaneeya, atwhich we passed the night, was once a great capital,founded, or at all events embellished, by Iljaëtoo Khan,a descendant of Chengeez, who ruled Persia about A.D.1300. A splendid mosque, said to be that monarch'smausoleum, with a wonderful dome supposed to be nearly150 feet in height, and 50 or 60 feet in diameter, is theonly edifice left to attest the greatness of Sultaneeya.This city is reported to have been ruined by the suddendisappearance of water, caused doubtless by an earthquake, which forced the inhabitants to migrate. In evidence of the grandeur of Sultaneeya, I forget how manyhundred or thousand Kajāvas, the Persians declare, leftthe city in one day.

We were now sensibly descending from the high elevation of Azerbijan. The air was becoming mild and warmas we approached the city of Kasveen, on the 16th ofNovember. This town presents the remains of ancient,worn-out greatness; and one sees there, as elsewhere inPersia, considerable tracts with scanty population; extensive bazars without goods or traffickers; fine mosquesand palaces in ruin or decay. This at one time was oneof the many capitals of Persia. Each dynasty, as it succeeded to the kingdom, seems to have selected a specialtown as its residence. After seeing Tehran, which hasnot a single point to recommend it, I frequently regrettedthat Kasveen had not been approved of by the Kajārs astheir capital. It is situated at the foot of the mountainsleading to Geelan and the Caspian, and at the extremityof a fine plain that wants only water and population tomake it a garden of fertility. It is the land of grapes,which in profusion, variety, and flavour, are unsurpassed.

Persia may be said to have neither rivers nor streams;rain also being scanty, it was necessary to invent somemeans of irrigation. This has been done with great ingenuity. The vast plain of Kasveen has been intersectedin all directions with kanāts, extending miles upon miles.A kanāt may be called a subterranean aqueduct, and is asuccession of wells, beginning in the mountains, and conducted the required distance into the plains, sometimesfor thirty or forty miles. To say the truth, I have neverbeen able thoroughly to understand the system, but I willwrite down all I have heard about it. A shaft or well issunk on the skirt of a mountain until a spring is reached.A subterranean channel, often from thirty to forty feetbeneath the surface, is dug in the direction of the plain,into which the water of the spring, with that of as manyother springs as possible, is collected. At fifteen ortwenty yards distance another shaft is sunk, and thus thechannel and shafts are continued to the desired point bya system of levelling which, if not conducted on scientificprinciples, is said to be practically correct. The use ofthe shafts is to clear out the channel from time to time.The expense of this method of cultivation, and thevalue of water in the Shah's dominions, may be conceived. Yet all Persia is covered with the remainsof kanāts, which war and bad government have broughtto decay.

Happily for the dry climate of Persia, the constructionof kanāts has been made one of the passports to paradisefor pious Mussulmans. Nothing is more meritorious thanto conduct a stream of water into a town, where, in summer, the poorer part of the population suffers greatdistress from drought. A Persian who has spent his lifein peculation, or in amassing wealth by interest at 100per cent., or even 200 at times, when his days are closing,resolves to win heaven and a good reputation by relievingthe thirst of his fellow-citizens in the above way. Tomake as sure as he can of his kanāt, and save it fromembezzlement, be calls the church to his aid, and puts itunder the protection of some holy moolla, by declaring itwaqf; that is, it becomes an offering to God, and cannotbe sold or "eaten"–at least it ought not to be eaten;but all his precautions are often useless in saving hiskanāt from this gastronomic process. Do what he will,he cannot prevent his patent for paradise from becomingthe cause of various broken heads. The droughty denizensfight bitterly for its possession.

At Kasveen we lodged in the house of a wealthy merchant. In any other country this man would have beenspurned as a swindler; here he holds a high positionin the mercantile world and at court. A Georgianyouth, captured at the sack of Tiflis sixty years ago,had risen to the highest appointments in Persia, andhad amassed great wealth, which, as a slave belongingto the king, should, at his death, have been inherited bythe Shah. He, wishing to bequeath it to his relations,secretly deposited with this merchant a large sum ofmoney. At his death, this person presented himself tothe Prime Minister, and, with protestations of loyalty anddevotion, announced that 30,000 tomans (about 15,000l.)were in his hands, which he would immediately pay tothe Shah. It was not doubted that this was a plan toretain for himself another 30,000 tomans.

Continuing our journey to the East through the plainof Kasveen, which at other seasons is covered with thetents of eelyats, on our left hand lay the range of Elboorz. These mountains concealed from. our view aremarkable place, no less than Alamoot, the castle ofHassan Sahib, the redoubted chief of the Assassins,popularly called the Old Man of the Mountain, fromhis Arabic designation of Sheikh el Jebbal, who, aboutthe year 1060, founded a religion which appears to haveborne some resemblance to modern Bābeeism. To thenovices, a creed not very different from Mahommedanism,of which the forms were strictly preserved, was inculcated;while to the initiated was made known the real doctrine,that all is nought, illusion, emptiness.

Hassan lived to the age of ninety, and died peaceably inhis bed, which he had allowed very few of his enemies todo. After capturing Alamoot, for thirty-five years henever left that fortress, and twice only did he move fromthe chamber whence issued his mandates of death. Heexecuted two of his sons–one for the insignificantoffence of drinking wine. One of his first victims, whenhe began his career of murder, was Nassr-ood-deen, thefamous vezeer of Alp Arselan and Malek Shah, the twogreat monarchs of the Seljookee race. Hassan Sabāhwas born at Rei, near Tehran, and studied at Nishaboor,where one of his college companions was Nassr-ood-deen.They made a compact that the first to attain greatnessshould befriend the other. After a long course of years,Nassr-ood-deen became Grand Vezeer. Hassan proceeded to court, and upbraided him with his breach ofpromise. The other acknowledged his friend's claim, andin a short time his great talents raised him to high favourwith Malek Shah; when, according to the usage of Persians, he tried every art to subvert his patron. The kinghaving demanded an account of the revenue of his empire,Nassr-ood-deen required more than a year to prepare it.Hassan Sebāh immediately offered to furnish the accountin forty days. He kept his promise; but at the criticalmoment of examination several sheets were found wanting,and he was dismissed in disgrace. He then wandered toEgypt, where he first imbibed his doctrines. Nassr-ood-deen is supposed to have abstracted the missing sheets,in order to bring disgrace on his ungrateful rival.For nearly two centuries Hassan and his descendantsmaintained their independence and rule in their mountainfortress, seizing other castles of the same description inthe hill ranges of Persia and Palestine, and spreadingtheir doctrine and their supremacy by the daggers of hisFedwees, or disciples, which they wielded without remorse.Von Hammer describes these sectaries, and they arefamiliar to most readers in 'The Crusaders.' SultanSanjar, one of the Seljookee monarchs, led an armytowards Alamoot to exterminate this band of Assassins.Awaking one morning, he found a dagger plunged to thehilt in the earth by his bedside, with a scroll on it tellinghim to beware, else next time the dagger would besheathed in his breast. Sultan Sanjar then retired.Hoolakoo Khan was made of sterner stuff. About A.D.1250 he captured Alamoot, and slew thousands of theAssassins, or Ismaëlees, as they are otherwise called.Their former appellation is supposed to be derived eitherfrom the name of their founder Hassan, or from the wordhashish, said to be a preparation from hemp, of highlyintoxicating power, which was drunk by the Fedwees previously to the execution of the orders of their chief, toslay. The "Lords of Wrath," or Meerghazabs of theShah, as the executioners about the Shah's person arecalled, are said to use chers, or bang, a preparation ofthe same description, in the performance of their vocationof extracting eyes, strangling, and cutting throats.

Several years ago my husband paid a visit to Alamoot,which proved to be a high solitary rock, in the midst of avalley surrounded by lofty mountains. With great difficulty and some danger he and his companions ascendedto the top, where they found only a few insignificant buildings, and some cisterns for containing water. One sideof the rock down to the valley beneath, was smooth andabrupt. It was hence doubtless the Fedwees used toprecipitate themselves to evince their obedience to themandates of the Sheikh of the Mountain. The stay ofthe party at the top was short, so nervously eager werethey to face and get over the danger of the return descent.Passing one very bad spot several yards in length, the heartof one of the party somewhat failed him, so he bestridedthe shoulders of a mountaineer; but, when half way, hefound himself overhanging a precipice of several hundredfeet, with a path of a few inches wide, and the hill mantottering beneath him.

Proceeding through the level and cheerful plain ofKasveen, we arrived in a few days at Suleimāneeya,which afforded us a prospect of the speedy termination ofour long journey. Latterly it had been constantly enlivenedby arrivals from Tehran of friends and acquaintances,expectants of countenance; and numbers of strangers,whose affairs at court under the new reign were in alanguishing condition, and who sought to prop them up bypropitiating the newcomer. Lambs, fruits, and sugarcandy,the usual offerings on such occasions, flowed in to superfluity, to the great delight of the array of Persian servantsby whom we were surrounded, though certainly not served.Suleimāneeya is an extensive palace or hunting-seat, builtby the present king's great-grandfather, Fetteh Ali Shah.It contains courts and apartments innumerable for lodgingthe ample haram of that monarch, who seems to havemade Solomon his prototype. The number of the inmatesof the anderoon belonging to this sovereign is estimatedat several hundred. His Majesty's sons were reckonedat upwards of eighty, but his daughters were too numerousto admit of calculation; though why the ladies shouldexceed in such proportion the gentlemen of the familywas never explained. It is an idea among Persiansthat women are considerably more numerous than men;and this delusion they all allege as a proof that Providence intended wives should be in excess to husbands.His Majesty's sons followed his example, with the resultof many among them having forty or fifty children; andthe total of his descendants is estimated at some thousand persons. Some among them are consequently in adeplorable state of poverty. I have heard of one prince,a son or grandson of Fetteh Ali Shah, who used to gohimself to the bazaar to buy bread for his family; andI know of more than one who begged a member of themission to give them two or three sovereigns to relievethem from actual want. The princesses are many of themgreatly to be commiserated. They have been forced bydestitution to marry persons of very inferior condition;and one lady in particular had taken for her husband aman who had been a cobbler, but who had raised himselfabove that station.

In this palace there was one room of considerable size,which served as the hall of audience of Fetteh Ali Shah.It was decorated in the usual style of Persian taste–abundance of gilding, varnish of all colours. Looking glasses covered the walls and ceiling; fresco paintings of damsels of Europe and Persia were interspersed, allscantily attired, but particularly the former, who wereinvariably represented as if in the fullest, or rather thescantiest, dress, as for a ball. In Persia, the painting ofa lady intended to be European is easily distinguishableby her companion, a little dog, under her arm. At oneend of the apartment was a large fresco painting, fullsize, of Fetteh Ali Shah, in regal array, with a numerousparty of his sons standing around him. The Kajjars arean eminently handsome race–at least the royal familyare so–and not the less from the style of features beingIsraelitish. They are almost to be recognised in thestreets by their large open black eyes, aquiline noses, andwell-chiselled mouth. At the other extremity of theroom was another painting of still greater attraction. Itrepresented Agha Mahommed Khan, the founder of theKajjar dynasty, surrounded by the chiefs of his tribe whohelped him to the sovereignty of Persia. ExceptingAgha Mahommed himself, they are all clad in mail, andall seated on chairs, which seems to be an error in dramatic propriety of the painter; for though the ancientPersians are supposed to have made use of chairs, theground is preferred by the modern race. "Oh, I amso tired; do, pray, let me sit on the ground to rest myself,"–a Persian visitor often says to his English friend,after sitting on a chair for an hour. The likenesses ofthe chiefs are said to be excellent, and that of AghaMahommed Khan himself inimitable. The former arefine, sturdy, determined-looking warriors. Agha Mahommed looks like a fiend. The atrocious, cold, calculating ferocity which marked the man is stamped on hiscountenance. He waded through blood to the throne,and at length his cruelty cost him his life. One evening,for some trifling fault, he threatened two of his menialservants with death in the morning. As he ever kept hisword in a matter of this kind, these domestics murderedhim during the night at Sheesha, in Karabagh, in 1797,and his nephew Fetteh Ali Shah ascended the throne.

It is related that once having ordered many hundredeyes to be levied from a town which had fallen under hisvengeance, they were brought to him in a platter. Thesavage monarch drew his dagger, and counted the eyeswith the point. Having finished his diabolical arithmetic, he turned to his minister, and said, "Wallāhee! ifone had been wanting I would have made up the numberwith your own eyes."

Agha Mahommed Khan was a man of inflexible resolution. On one occasion he was surprised at night byhis competitor for the throne Lootf Ali Khan Zend, ayouth of incomparable courage, whom Agha Mahommedafterwards cruelly put to death. The entire camp fled,and left their chief to his fate, with only a few guards.He, however, with wonderful resolution, remained in histent, which the enemy, in order that it might be preservedfrom pillage, did not enter. In the morning, at the firststreak of dawn, the Kajjar chief's muezzin proclaimed, inhis loudest tone, "Allāh ho Akbar! Allāh ho Akbar!"Lootf Ali Khan and his troops were seized with astonishment, and at once believed that Agha MahommedKhan, who they thought had fled, was returned with allhis forces. They took to flight forthwith, and a newdynasty was established.

Though cruel and bloodthirsty,5 it was chiefly by thehigher classes that his fierce temper was felt. To thepeople at large he was just and kind, and his dominionswere so secure from robbers and marauders that, inPersian phrase, the wolf and the lamb might drink atthe same fountain. A horseman once stopped a peasantdriving an ass loaded with melons, and helped himself toone. "You rascal! you dog! is there no justice inIran? Is Agha Mahommed Khan dead?" screamedthe peasant, making a blow at the thief. The pleasedhorseman retired, smiling: it was Agha Mahommed Khanhimself. I have perhaps tarried too long with Agha Mahommed Khan; but as all this happened only sixty-fiveyears ago and may happen again, his history and hispicture made a deep impression upon me.

The next day brought us to a village within fourmiles of Tehran. Here the urgent request of the PrimeMinister induced a stay of three days, much to my discomfort. His Excellency had been consulting the astrologers,who, on referring to the stars, had ascertained that for twodays there would not be a "saëte neek," a good hour, fora solemn entry to the capital. As the Ameer e Nirzam,or Prime Minister, was anxious on the subject, and asColonel Sheil knew that if hereafter anything went wrongit would be attributed to the bad hour, he agreed togratify the Grand Vezeer. Many Persians pretend tolaugh at astrologers, yet there is scarcely one amongthem who undertakes a business of importance withoutascertaining if the "hour is good," or taking a fāl to helphis judgment. Like the captain of a man of war, manyamong them "make "the hour good by repeating theirexperiments until fate is forced to be propitious. Whatastrologers mean by a good and bad hour is, I think, thefact of a malignant star–like Mars in a love matter, forinstance-being in the ascendant or otherwise. Takinga fāl means opening at random the Koran; Hafiz; Saadee,the Sheikh, as he is familiarly called, counting a certainnumber of lines down the page,–and then futurity isrevealed.

Early in the morning of the appointed day, I was, incompany with Crab (who was considered as much out ofplace as myself), deposited in my large box, the takhterewan, the curtains of which were carefully closed, anddespatched forthwith to Tehran before the turmoil;having, in my capacity of woman, no concern with thesolemnities about to follow. On entering the capital ofthe Great King, the King of Kings, the Shahinshah, Iwas startled to see a repetition of Tabreez, and something worse, particularly in passing through the quarterof the hostage Toorkomans. The women showed themselves in crowds, and with complete disregard of Persian ideas. I was greatly amused at the manœuversof my escort extraordinary. They were constantly vociferating to the male passengers to depart, lest I shouldbe profaned by being seen. When a stray passengerhappened to neglect their hints and advance boldlytowards the takht, he was immediately seized, and placedwith his face close to the wall until I had passed. Onreaching the mission I was charmed at the contrast presented with the streets. I passed through a prettyEnglish garden, and then entered an excellent and evenstately-looking English, or rather Italian, dwelling ofconsiderable size. I was still more surprised when anextremely well-dressed Persian entered the room, andsaid to me, in an accent savouring most intensely ofthe "Cowgate," "Wi' ye tak ony breakfast?" Thiswas Ali Mahommed Beg, the mission housekeeper,who had acquired a fair knowledge of English froma Scotch woman-servant. Some hours after, my husband arrived, hot and dusty. The official entry surpassed in brilliancy even the istikbāl of Tabreez: thesame crowd, rush and crush; the same coffee, tea, andkalleeons; the meerzas, the merchants, the beggars, thelootees. One of the latter particularly distinguishedhimself: he put an ass on his shoulders, and struttedalong in front of the Elchee. The Persians adopted awhimsical method of carrying out the rules of istikbal,"according to treaty." The village we were residing inwas three miles distant from Tehran, and etiquette requires the ceremony to commence four miles from thecity. The point was knotty, but a Persian is a man ofresource. A tent was pitched at the requisite distance;and my husband was accordingly obliged to return amile towards Tabreez, to receive the congratulations ofthe Shah's representative. Then followed the long, dusty,hot ride to town; for though it was now the 27th ofNovember, the weather formed a strong contrast with thetemperature of Azerbijan. We were in lat. 36°, andelevated above the sea not much more than three thousand feet.

We had now concluded our long journey of more thanthree months and a half. I was rejoiced at its termination; for though mixed with many pleasurable associations, many new ideas acquired, many wrong notionsdissipated; I was tired of the constraint and the unceasing hurry from object to object. I was glad to rest,and to be able to see the dawn and daylight appear withindifference. I felt inclined to do as an Indian officer Iheard once did. After he left the army, he paid a manto blow a bugle every morning at daybreak, that hemight have the satisfaction of feeling he need not get up.

⁵ He sacked Tiflis with unbounded cruelty, and carried off thousandsof women and children. At Kerman, which had given refuge to hisrival Lootf Ali Khan, he is said to have extracted 70,000 pairs of eyes,and killed an equal number of human beings; but this is incredible.

CHAPTER VIII.

Dulness of the life in Tehran – Gardening – The Persian language –The Moharrem. – Dramatic representation – Fighting among the women – Extraordinary overflow of grief at the representation –Visit to the Shah's mother and wives – Interior of the Haram – Thin costume.

December 2nd, 1849.–HERE, then we were fairlylaunched on the monotonous current of life in Persia.To a man the existence is tiresome enough, but to awoman it is still more dreary. The former has the resource of his occupation,–the sports of the field, thegossip and scandal of the town, in which he must joinwhether he likes it or not; and, finally, Persian visitingcannot be altogether neglected, and, if freely entered into,is alone a lavish consumer of time. With a woman it isotherwise. She cannot move abroad without being thicklyveiled; she cannot amuse herself by shopping in thebazars, owing to the attention she would attract unlessattired in Persian garments. This is precluded by theinconvenience of the little shoes hardly covering half thefoot, with a small heel three inches high in the middle ofthe sole, to say nothing of the roobend or small whitelinen veil, fitting tightly round the head (over the largeblue veil which envelopes the whole person), and hangingover the face, with an open worked aperture for the eyesand for breathing; then the chakh-choor, half-boot half-trousers, into which gown and petticoat are crammed.As to visiting, intimacy with Persian female society hasseldom any attraction for a European, indeed I regret tosay there were only a few of the Tehran ladies whose mereacquaintance was considered to be desirable; so that thefine garden of the Mission, which hitherto had been muchneglected, was the only resource left to me. The Shah hadthen in his service a first-rate English gardener, Mr. Burton,and with his help I astonished every one with the fineness ofmy celery, cauliflowers, &c., for these useful edibles occupied my mind more than flowers. Gardening in Persiais not an easy matter to bring to perfection. First thereis the difficulty of making the gardeners do as they aretold, and then twice every week the garden is flooded andthe beds drowned. When the spring comes on and thesun gets strong and fierce, the beds dry up soon, and looklike baked earth, cracked and dry, until the next waterday, when they are changed into mud. The ground iscovered with snow during January and February, so thatMarch and April in spring, and October, November, andDecember in the autumn and beginning of winter, arethe only months fit for the cultivation of a garden. Thepower of the sun in summer is so intense, that flowersblow and wither in a day. Roses come in about the 24thof April, and are out of season in Tehran by the middleof May. During that time they are in wonderful profusion, and are cultivated in fields as an object of trade tomake rosewater; they are an inferior kind of cabbagerose. Persians are also fond of cultivating tuberoses,narcissus, and tulips in water; still all their flowers aremuch inferior to ours; but while they last are superabundant. I got over some fine hyacinths one year, andthey attracted great admiration. Nearly all our gardenflowers grow wild in Persia, but are small, and alwayssingle.

The distance at which the Russian mission residedprevented me from cultivating as much as I wished, theacquaintance of Princess D— and her amiable daughter;and the remaining European female society of Tehranwas limited to one or two ladies, the wives of foreignofficers in the Shah's service. To my countrywomen,therefore, whose pleasures are derived from the excitements of a London or Paris season, I need not offercounsel to eschew a land where life for them much resembles that of a convent. Once a month the post fromEurope arrived, and that was a bright, joyful day. The10th of each month the mail was "due," and every oneanxiously expecting it, but alas! we often experiencedthe truth of the saying, "Hope deferred maketh theheart sick," for we were often forgotten in Constantinople.

There was ample time consequently for the study ofPersian, and I soon acquired sufficient to enable me togo through my part unaided in the society of the fewPersian ladies with whom I was on visiting terms. Fortunately Persian, up to a certain extent, is an exceedingly easy language, more so even than Italian. In thepronunciation there is no difficulty, and for my limitedtopics of conversation the idiom was not so remote fromthat of the languages of Europe as to make its acquisition a painful study. But that there is no good unmixedwith evil is true of Persian as of all other things. Thereis no such thing as "reading made easy." The characteris abominable and almost invincible. Enough to say, thatthere are neither capitals nor pauses of any kind, nordivisions of sentences, paragraphs, chapters, books, orvolumes. English itself would be an enigma under suchperplexities. One of my modes of study was to listen tothe Persian meerzas, or secretaries, reading letters, butI never saw an instance of their reading an epistle at oncewithout hesitation, and still less of their understanding itat the first perusal.

The month of December chanced this year to be oneof woe and wailing externally, but really of relaxationand amusem*nt to all classes of Persians. It was themonth of Moharrem, which among Sheahs is solemnizedin commemoration of the slaughter of Imām Hoossein andhis family in the desert of Kerbella. The story is affecting.The Persians have converted it into a theatrical representation, somewhat resembling the Mysteries producedon the stage in old times in England and elsewhere. Hoossein, the son of Fatma, daughter of Mahommed, is marching through the desert with his wives and family of youngchildren and attendants, chiefly his near relations, numbering seventy persons. They are attacked by the troopsof Yezeed, commanded by his general Obeid Oollah, themonarch of Damascus, and the second sovereign of theBenee Ommeya dynasty. Hoossein defends himself valiantly during several days; till at length he is cut offfrom the Euphrates, and his family perish, some fromthirst, some fighting. Hoossein is finally killed and hishead is cut off by Shimr. It requires to be seen to conceive the emotion of the Persians at this performance.On every side, and from all ranks, sighs, groans, andweeping, without restraint, are heard, mixed with imprecations against the perpetrators of the cruelties sufferedby the prophet's grandson and his family. Excitementis occasionally carried to such a pitch that Shimr, theobject of general execration, has difficulty in making hisescape from the oriental Judge Lynch, and particularlyfrom the indignation and buffets of the women. The representation lasts ten days, and several hours each day.I confess with some shame, that my patience and curiositywere insufficient to carry me through a complete performance of the entire drama; nevertheless I have been toseveral representations. One of the principal personageson one of the ten days is the Elchee Fering, some fictitiousEuropean ambassador, probably Greek, who is presentwhen the head of Hoossein is exhibited to Yezeed, andwho loudly protests against the massacre; for which indiscretion he is rewarded with the crown of martyrdom.There is always great anxiety that the costume of hisExcellency should be European and military, and, aboveall, a co*cked hat and feather are highly prized. AtSerab, some years ago, a deputation once waited onmy husband to borrow his coat and cap for the ElcheeFering, now generally called with immense contempt ofchronology, Elchee Inglees. At Tehran our horses andchairs too, are in constant requisition during the month ofMoharrem, at the private performances in the city–theformer to appear in the pageant, the latter to accommodate the European visitors.

The Prime Minister had constructed an immensebuilding, holding several thousand persons, for these representations. It fulfilled all the purposes of a theatre,though after a design somewhat novel. The stage, insteadof being at the bottom of the building, was formedof a large elevated platform in the middle of the pit, if Imay so call it, perfectly open on every side, and revealing,to the entire destruction of all exercise of the imagination,the mysteries which ought to pass behind the curtain.Two tiers of boxes surround the platform. The foreignministers receive a formal invitation to attend the Tazeeya,as these performances are called, of the Prime Minister,to refuse which would be resented as highly discourteous.I too was included in the invitation. On reaching thebuilding, I was conducted to a very comfortable loge, withan antechamber, or kefshken, "slipper-casting" room,where one leaves the outer shoes. The front of the boxcarefully covered over with a thick felt carpet,pierced with small holes, which, while they allowed us tosee all that passed, completely excluded us from the viewof the audience. The Shah's box was at the top, facingthe performers; on his right were the boxes of his uncles,the prime minister, the English minister as senior, theRussian minister, &c. On his left were the boxes of hismother, who has no other title than that of Māder eShah, the king's mother, and his wives; then that ofthe prime minister's wife, then mine, and next the Russian minister's wife. The fatigues of the day wererelieved by constant supplies of tea and coffee, with pipesincessantly for those who liked them. The "house" wascompletely filled, and there must have been severalthousand persons present. Part of the pit was appropriated to women of humble condition, who were in greatnumbers, all however carefully veiled, and all seated onthe bare ground. Before the "curtain drew up," it wasludicrous to witness the contention among these damesfor places, which was not always limited to cries and execrations. They often proceeded to blows, striking eachother heartily on the head with the iron heel of theirslippers, dexterously snatched off the foot for the purpose;and, worse still, tearing off each other's veils; severalferashes were present to keep the peace, armed with longsticks, with which they unmercifully belaboured thesepugnacious devotees. It would be tedious to describe adrama of ten days' duration. Everything was done tomake- the scene as real as possible. Hoossein, his family,and attendants, were in the costume of the time. Theymake their appearance, travelling to Cufa, in the desertof Kerbella. Camels, led horses caparisoned, kejawās,are conducted round the platform; trumpets, kettledrums,resound far and near. Yezeed's army appears, hisgeneral makes a speech, Imām Hoossein laments hispathetic fate; he then goes out to fight, and returns,himself and his horse covered with arrows. The sceneproceeds; they are cut off from the Euphrates; morelamentations over their impending fate, more fighting.The fierce Shimr and his cavaliers, all in mail, come forward, mounted on their war-horses; Shimr makes speechesin character; Imām Hoossein replies with dignity andwith grief for the distress of his family. His youngsons Ali Akbar and Ali Asghar go out to fight, and arebrought back dead. Sekkeena and Rookheeya, his littledaughters, are slain amid the weeping loud and unfeignedof the audience. The angel Gabriel descends from theskies, attended by his ministering angels, all radiant inspangled wings, and deprecates the hard lot of theprophet's offspring; the King of the Gins, or Genii, withhis army, appears, and follows the angelic example.Moses, Jesus Christ, and Mahommed, revisit the earth,and are stricken with the general contagion of grief.At length Shimr does his work, amidst an universal outburst of sorrow and indignation; and the next day, thetenth, the interment of Imām Hoossein and his familytakes places at Kerbella.

It is a sight in no small degree curious to witness anassemblage of several thousand persons plunged in deepsorrow, giving vent to their grief in the style of schoolboys and girls. The Persians have a peculiar manner ofweeping. Various extraordinary and ludicrous noisesaccompany their demonstrations, which one is sometimesinclined to mistake for laughter. When one begins thecontagion spreads to all. I too felt myself forced, wouldI or not, to join my tears to those of the Persian womenround me, which appeared to give considerable satisfactionto them. The events are indeed affecting, and many ofthe parts are acted with great spirit and judgment. Thedelivery is a sort of recitative. Imām Hoossein wascomposed and dignified. The part of Sekkeena, a girl oftwelve, was performed by a little boy with an approbationwhich he well deserved. Shimr was excellent, fierce andferocious as a Meerghazab. Young lads represented thewives of Hoossein, in whose favour I can say nothing;their boisterous Arab grief failed to excite my sympathy.

It was strange to see Moses attired as an Arab sheikh,which probably enough was a correct representation of hisreal costume, though not bearing much likeness to MichaelAngelo's conception of the great lawgiver. Our Saviourwas made to appear in garments denoting poverty, thoughcertainly not with any intention of indignity. Two women sat at his side, who, in answer to my inquiry, I wastold were his wives. Mahommed made amends by hisgrandeur, in which silvered silk and Cashmeer shawlswere prominent. The Elchee was accompanied by hiswife, who had a European bonnet on, with the curtainhanging over the forehead and the front on her neck.During the entire month the women and many of the mendress in black.

January 12th.–The season of grief having passed, Inow prepared to pay my respects to the Serkar e Mader eShah, her highness the Shah's mother. Instead of hisMajesty's principal wife, as one would anticipate, it is thislady who holds the chief place at court–among the womankind, be it well understood. The royal wives count asnothing, unless under very unusual circ*mstances, suchas occurred in the instance of the Tājood Dowla, inFetteh Ali Shah's reign, who, from a very humble origin,ascended to her elevated position by force of talent, and,what is more uncommon, of goodness. The Khanum, orLady, that being the name the Shah applies to hismother, as Napoleon the Great did Madame to his,having fixed the day, a large retinue of servants with agaudy takhterewān were sent by her to convey me to thepalace, which, joined to my own servants, made an inconvenient procession through the narrow bazars. Aftermuch shouting and turning of people's faces to the wall,we arrived at a small door. Here our cavalcade stopped,and I alighted from the takhterewān. The men servants

Persian Lady receiving a European Lady. Page 131.

were forbidden to advance, and, accompanied by my maid,I was conducted along a damp passage into a fine courtwith a large tank full of water in the centre; from variousapartments round this court women hastened out, curiousto see the Khanum e Inglees, the English lady. I passedon, ascended a flight of steps, and reached a nice roomhung round with looking-glasses, where a chair had beenplaced for me. Here I was joined by a Frenchwoman,who, when very young, had married a Persian she met inParis, and whose faith she has since adopted. She is interpreter to the Shah's mother, and is a very clever, agreeableperson. In a few minutes a negress entered the room,and informed us that the Khanum waited, and that I wasto "take my brightness into her presence." We were thenushered into the adjoining chamber, and found her seatedon a chair at a table which was covered with coarse whiteunhemmed calico. On each side of her, on a chair likewise, sat a pretty young lady covered with jewels. TheKhanum said a great many amiable things to me, andwent through all the usual Persian compliments, hopingmy heart had not grown narrow, that my nose was fat, &c.&c. She then introduced the two young ladies as theShah's two principal wives and cousins. Neither of themuttered a word, but sat like statues during my interview,which lasted two hours. The Shah's mother is handsome,and does not look more than thirty, yet her real agemust be at least forty. She is very clever, and is supposed to take a large share in the affairs of the government. She has also the whole management of the Shah'sanderoon; so that I should think she must have a gooddeal to occupy her mind, as the Shah has three principalwives, and eight or nine inferior ones. These ladies haveeach a separate little establishment, and some a separatecourt from the rest, but all the courts have a communication with one another. I do not admire the costume ofthe Persian women. The Shah's mother was dressedwith great magnificence. She wore a pair of trousersmade of gold brocade. These Persian trousers arealways, as I have before remarked, very wide, each legbeing, when the means of the wearer allow it, wider thanthe skirt of a gown, so that they have the effect of an exceedingly ample petticoat; and as crinolines are unknown, the elegantes wear ten and eleven pairs of trousers,one over the other in order to make up for the want ofthe above important invention. But to return to theShah's mother: her trousers were edged with a border ofpearls embroidered on braid; she had a thin blue crepechemisette, also trimmed with pearls; this chemisettehung down a little below the waist, nearly meeting thetop of the trousers, which are fastened by a runningstring. As there was nothing under the thin gauze, theresult of course was more display than is usual in Europe.A small jacket of velvet was over the chemisette, reaching to the waist, but not made to close in front, andon the head a small shawl, pinned under the chin. Onthe shawl were fastened strings of large pearls and diamond sprigs; her arms were covered with handsomebracelets, and her neck with a variety of costly necklaces.Her hair was in bands, and hung down under the shawl,in a multitude of small plaits. She wore no shoes, herfeet being covered with fine Cashmere stockings. Thepalms of her hands and tips of her fingers were dyed red,with a herb called henna, and the edges of the inner partof the eyelids were coloured with antimony. All theKajars have naturally large arched eyebrows, but, notsatisfied with this, the women enlarge them by doublingtheir real size with great streaks of antimony: her cheekswere well rouged, as is the invariable custom amongPersian women of all classes. She asked me many questions about the Queen; how she dressed, how many sonsshe had, and said she could not imagine a happier personthan her Majesty, with her fine family, her devoted husband, and the power she possessed. She made me describe the ceremonial of a drawing-room. I much regretted I had no picture of the Queen to show her. Shewas also curious to have an account of a theatre. Mymaid had been taken to another room, where, surroundedby the servants and slaves of the anderoon, she was surfeited with sugarplums, and where her dress excitedmuch curiosity. These attendants had the same costumeas the Shah's mother, only English printed calico ofbright flowered patterns took the place of brocade andvelvet. Some of them had their hair cut short in front,and combed straight down to the eyebrows, with two stiffcurls at each check, peeping out from under the shawl.Tea, coffee, and pipes were brought in repeatedly, andafter some time a nice collation of fruit. Various kindsof sherbets, ices, and cakes were spread on the table, andon the ground. We were surrounded by ladies, whoattended as if they had been servants. No one wasseated, excepting the Shah's mother, his wives, and myself.Some of the former were wives of the late Shah and hispredecessor, Fetteh Ali Shah. None of them were young,excepting one, who was very handsome as well as youthful. Her name was Miriam Khanum, wife of a brotherof the Shah's mother. She was much flattered at mytelling her she was like a European. The women inPersia have only one name, sometimes a fanciful one;such as Beebee Asr, "the Lady of the Era;" Mehrban Khānum, "the Lady of Courtesy;" Sheereen Khanum, "Lady of Sweetness," &c. &c. At length I departed, and regained my takhterewan, highly pleased withthe novelty of the scene. When I had acquired a sufficientknowledge of their language to be able to form an opinion,I found the few Persian women I was acquainted within general lively and clever; they are restless and intriguing, and may be said to manage their husband's andson's affairs. Persian men are made to yield to theirwishes by force of incessant talking and teazing.

CHAPTER IX.

Gebr fire-worshippers – Curious mode of interment – Mission garden taken possession of by the Persian ladies – Persian music – Musical masons – The anniversary of Omar's assassination – How celebrated – Difference between Turks and Persians – Persian tolerance – Debts – Marriage – Condition of Persian women.

February 1st.–THE large garden attached to the mission, in which we perform our daily perambulations, wason the opposite side of the road or street; yet even forthis short distance we were forced to submit to the tiresome etiquette of being attended by numerous servants.I never went out to drive with less than fifteen or twentyhorsem*n armed to the teeth; not that there was the remotest shadow of danger, for no country is safer thanPersia, but that dignity so required. Yet this troublesome grandeur was trifling to the cavalcade of a Persianlady or gentleman of rank. Our garden was but a melancholy place of recreation: lugubrious rows of cypress,the emblem of the graveyard in the East, crossed eachother at right angles; and, to complete the picture, thedeserted, neglected, little tombs of some of the childrenof former Ministers occupied a prominent space, andfilled one sometimes with gloomy forebodings. The gardeners of this spot, which, in spite of the above disadvantages, was invaluable to me; by an old custom of theMission, were always Gebrs of the ancient fire-worshippingnative race. These people are most industrious, andstruggle hard under oppression and bigotry, to gain asubsistence. They dwell chiefly in the eastern provinceof Yezd, from whence they migrate annually in greatnumbers during spring, something like the Irish reapersand mowers of old; and before winter they assemble inthe Mission garden, and with their humble gains returnin a body to their own province. In Tehran their abodeis the Mission garden, where I have sometimes seen twohundred of this primitive people collected under the trees,where they live. The garden is recognised as their sanctuary and place of refuge, where no hand of violencemolests them. They preserve a connexion with theirbrethren the Parsees of Bombay, and it is on this account,in all likelihood, that their intercourse with us is so intimate. In these improving days of Persia this protectionis less necessary than formerly; particularly as the present Prime Minister is a man of much humanity, andwilling to befriend this hapless community, who, in theirown province, suffer great hardships from the rapacity ofgovernors, and the bigotry of moollas. They are a simple,uneducated class, more rustic and uncouth in their appearance and manners than Mahommedan Persians of thesame condition. Little or no information could be gainedfrom them regarding their religion and customs. Theysaid there was one great God that ruled everything, andthat he had created numerous other gods or angels, whosuperintend the affairs of the world; there was a futurityof rewards and punishments; and besides the God ofGoodness there is another spirit who is the cause of sin.This of course was Ahriman. They denied emphaticallythat fire or light was regarded as God; but they affirmedthat they considered it as a most sacred and holy representative of the Divinity and of his power. Comparedwith other Persians, the Gebrs are described to be ahighly virtuous people, though oppression has made themcrafty; and my experience of the manner in which myfattest turkeys and best vegetables disappeared, makesme certain that they are not much more honest than therest of the nation. They marry but one wife, with thenatural result of a greater amount of conjugal felicitythan prevails among Mahommedan Persians. Within afew miles of Tehran there is a place of interment of theGebrs. The body is placed at the summit of a hill,exposed to the air and to the birds of prey; when theflesh is thoroughly consumed the bones are thrown into acommon pit. Few of their women venture so far asTehran: those who have appeared were plain in featureand coarse in expression; so, too, were the men, whollyunlike the men of the true Persian tribes, although, I suppose, both the Gebrs and these tribes are of the same race.

This garden was appropriated to other purposes. The13th of the month Seffer is, from some reason which I haveomitted to record, very ominous, particularly to any onewho ventures to pass the day in a house. The whole townis consequently on foot, either in excursions or in saunteringabout the few gardens in the dreary neighbourhood ofTehran. By ancient prescription our garden was devotedto the women of every rank who chose to make use of it,all males being carefully excluded, the Gebr gardenersexcepted, who among Persian women are counted asnothing. The garden is occupied during the entire dayby three or four hundred females–princesses, ladies, andothers of inferior degree–who devote themselves to smoking, and eating lettuces, radishes, if they happen to be inseason, or sweetmeats. The day never concludes withouta battle royal, hand and tongue, between them and theGebrs, who, strong in their dignity of gardeners to theVezeer Mookhtar, as the foreign Ministers are absurdlycalled,6 are unable to tolerate the unblushing pilfering ofplants, flowers, and fruit of these dames, headed by theprincesses, who never fail to put to flight the "fire-worshipping infidels." That powerful ruler in the EastAadet–custom–has given the ladies of Tehran vestedrights over her Majesty's garden one day in the year,which they stoutly maintain.

February 10th.–In passing through the streets ofTehran, one would be disposed to consider the Persiansa very musical race. From all sides melodious sounds,somewhat monotonous, it is true, constantly strike the ear.And yet they cannot be called a musical people; far fromit. The combination of second tenor and bass is unknownto them, and unison is all they aim at, no matter whatnumber of voices, or of fiddles, guitars, harps, and dulcimers, form the concert. A lad warbling in his throat, athis highest and loudest scream, in imitation of a nightingale, is the perfection of vocal music, which they willlisten to with pleasure for hours, and beguile the longestday's journey with the same dulcet strains. But thestreet music I allude to is a different thing: it proceedsfrom the bricklayers. In bricklaying in Persia the brickis thrown from hand to hand until at length it is pitchedto the oostād, the master mason. To relieve his monotonous labour the oostād has recourse to a chant, fully asmonotonous as his work, but sweet in tone. In generalhe combines a little polemical casuistry and devotion withhis psalmody, by directing a vast quantity of abuse againstOmar, the second Caliph after Mahommed, whom the Persians regard with bitter enmity, as being the leader in theexclusion of Ali from the Caliphate. He sings to wordsin this style:–

Khishtee bideh māra jānum
Lâanet illāhee ber Oma-a-ar.

Give me a brick then, my life,
And the curse of God light on Omar.

Yekee deeger bideh bimun azeezum
Inshallah kheir neh beened Oma-a-r.

Give me another, now, my darling,
Please God, Omar will not have any luck.

On the day on which Omar was assassinated, the powersof the bricklayers in poetical and melodious imprecationwax stronger. It is a strange circ*mstance that a manshould daily suffer malediction twelve hundred years afterhis death. Judas Iscariot is better off. The women distinguish themselves by their devotion on this anniversary,though their mode of evincing their piety is both inconvenient, and whimsical. Perched on the flat roof of theirhouses overlooking the street, and armed with a large potof water, they lie in wait for the passers by, and the heedless passenger is soused with the water, while a triumphantscream proclaims "Omar, laanehoo Allāh" (Omar, Godcurse him!). Beyond that general solver of all difficultiesand mysteries in Persia, Kaëdeh–custom, I never couldobtain any explanation of this practice, unless perhaps thenearly equally general and less complimentary one of "Zunest! Deeger" (they are women! what can you expect?).The Government never countenanced these ebullitions ofzeal, still it was not easy to punish the women. Whenthe Turkish ambassador came to Tehran, it was fearedhe might be insulted by expressions like these. Nothing,however, occurred to disturb harmony, perhaps from hisExcellency taking the precaution of remaining at home onthe day of Omar Kooshan (slaying Omar).

The Persians are a curious combination of bigotry andtolerance, or perhaps indifferentism; but in the townswhere Europeans reside, fanaticism is obviously fast decaying. It is believed that had Constantinople been theircapital, the Persians would long ere this have far surpassedthe Turks in religious toleration. A Turk has an Armenian for his cook, and his bath is freely open to a Christian. A Persian would on no account submit to have hisown kitchen presided over by an Armenian, who kills fowlsunlawfully by wringing their necks instead of cutting theirthroats; and when a European enters a public bath, itmust be by night, stealthily and at some expense. On theother hand, a Persian never hesitates to rise on receivinga Christian visitor; which is such gall and wormwood toany Ottoman whose official position compels him to showthis mark of deference to a European, that he generallycontrives on such occasions to be standing deeply engagedin the perusal of a letter. A Persian has likewise no hesitation in uttering the salutation of Salāmun Aleikoom, toa Christian, which a Turk would rather suffer martyrdomthan do. No contempt is felt by the natives of Persiatowards Europeans, though occasionally a moolla or adevout merchant may destroy the teacup his Europeanguest has used; on the contrary, they venerate them astheir superiors in almost every quality. A Turk, unlesshe be educated in Europe, and therefore denationalized,has seldom any feelings towards a Feringhee but those ofdislike and contempt. As a proof of the correctness ofthe above opinion, I may mention that several years ago aprivate soldier deserted from the Russian army and enteredthe service of the Shah. He rose to the rank of brigadierand khan, and notwithstanding that he continued to be aChristian, he was made military governor of the holy andbigoted city of Meshed. He governed the intolerantpopulation with such success, that his departure was thecause of general regret.

February 15th.–This is decidedly an odd people. Theentire nation seems to be in debt, commencing with theShah, who is in debt to the Emperor of Russia, and endingwith the humblest muleteer. The marvel is who are thosethat lend the money; they, it may be conjectured, beingout of debt. Every man of rank one hears of seems to bein the same predicament, though it is to be suspected thispoverty is often feigned to escape from the weighty handof exaction. To-day Malik Meerza Beg, our naïb ferashbashee, or deputy-groom of the chambers, as he hasdubbed himself, presented himself after breakfast, withsuppliant and dolorous looks; and, coming to the point,declared his debts pressed on him heavily, and thatwe were bound to help him by a loan of 12l. Thepretexts of the borrower are usually either he hadlately taken a fresh wife, or his family was large, hisfather had died, the wall of his house had fallen, the roofleaked, &c. But a new wife is the prevailing cause ofdebt. Our butler Mahommed Agha, not long after entering our service, took a second helpmate; after due time hishousehold was increased by a third; and at length, nothaving neglected the opportunities that occurred for improving his finances, a rumour reached us that a fourthespousal was in progress. This was alarming, as all theseladies were necessarily to live at our cost; so MahommedAgha was warned that if he remained with us, he mustnot anticipate the promised number of houris in Paradise.Another person, as heavily oppressed by his debts andcreditors as an ancient Roman nobleman, was SuleimanAgha, a ferash e khelwet (valet de chambre). Thecause was the same as in the previous instance. Atthe Aras he had neglected to join us, being more agreeably employed in taking a wife at Tabreez. On arriving at Tehran, we found he had not previously been abachelor; but he hastened to make himself a widowerby divorcing his wife because she had become blind,and then speedily took another. He seemed to adoptthe precaution of having a wife in each large town;for afterwards, when he accompanied us to Ispahan, wefound that there also a wife was ready to relieve his loneliness. The whole nation, I am told–the town part of it,at least–is more or less in the same condition.

The customs of the country are highly encouraging tolenders of money, and to extended views of matrimony.Interest of any kind is repudiated by the precepts of Mahommed; still it is admitted in the "common law." Legalinterest is limited to 12 per cent.; but it seldom amountsto less than 25, and often reaches 50, 60, or 100 per cent.A clever mode has been adopted of cheating the law,which would not recognize the validity of the interest. Aperson borrowing a thousand tomans, at 25 per cent. interest, gives a promissory note for 1250 tomans, as if thatwere the real amount lent. I am informed that in England devices of a similar nature are not unknown.

Matrimonial engagements are of two kinds, The realmarriage–the one looked upon as respectable–is confinedto four wives, and is called akd. This is permanent,unless divorce takes place. In the other there is no limitto the number of wives; but then the period of the engagement is restricted, and never exceeds ninety years.This is the most honourable term of contract in thesecondary, or seegha, marriage; but even this unreachableperiod does not place the seegha e neved saleh (ninetyyears) on a level with the akdee wife. Their sons, however, are on an equality as regards station and everythingelse, unless one of the wives happens to be of the reigningrace of Kajjar, or of a rank much above that of the husband. A man of station chooses the akdee wife from hisown class in life, while the seeghas are from an inferiorrank, and perform menial offices for the former. Themarriage ceremony is very simple: the family of the bridegroom, with a moolla, assemble at the bride's house;behind a curtain are the female relations, with the bride.The moolla asks her if she is willing to marry the bridegroom elect; and after a long delay (which is a point ofhonour) she whispers, Yes. The contract is then signedand registered, and sweetmeats are sent to the bride. Inthe evening she is conducted in procession, with pipes anddrums and all her worldly goods, to her husband's house.

The lot of women among the tribes, and among thepeasantry, is not, from all I hear, an unhappy one. Theirinterests are identified with their husbands: divorce israre; and the number of wives does not often exceedone. In the towns it seems to be otherwise. If they areyoung, handsome, or powerfully connected, matters aretolerably smooth. But when the wife loses her personalattraction she often sinks down to a household drudge;and at the best is seldom free from contention with herrivals in the haram. I do not think a Persian womanever feels the same affection for her husband as someEuropeans do. But when a rival wife is introduced intoan establishment her pin-money is decreased at Nowrooz(New Year's Day); her allowance for new clothes for herself and establishment is lessened; her children's interestssuffer, if she has any; and if not, perhaps her more fortunate rival may have a son; besides a variety of otherannoyances. Persian women seem to me to have noidea of a calm, tranquil life. Novelty, or whatevercauses excitement, is what they seek, and, I dare say, theywould be miserable without that stimulus. They havenot strong religious or moral principle; and the exampleof their husband is said to be no encouragement todomestic happiness.

When a woman happens to possess unusual talent, orhas a stronger understanding than her husband, she maintains her supremacy to the last, not only over her asso-

Persian Lady in Walking Costume. Page 145.

ciate wives, but over her husband, his purse, and property.I have heard of several gentlemen about the court whosewives would not suffer either the introduction of otherinmates to the haram, or drinking-parties, or any expenditure excepting on the most narrow scale. One of ourneighbours was a merchant who possessed a temper thatled him into frequent and noisy quarrels with his wives.The ladies seemed perfectly able to maintain their ground,as far as words went, and generally so overwhelmed himwith abuse, that flight or a beating used to be his commonresource. I remember on one occasion a member of themission was calling on a former Minister for ForeignAffairs on some business in which certain official documents required to be sealed. When the time for sealingarrived, the seals were missing, and after a long search itwas discovered, to his Excellency's intense confusion, thatthey had been carried off by his wife, who had gone on apilgrimage to Shah Abdul Azeem, a place of great holiness and resort for the ladies of Tehran, five miles fromtown.

A Persian woman of the upper class leads a life of idleness and luxury, though rather monotonous according toour ideas of existence. No balls, plays, or operas, nodinners, no new books, no watering-places, no Paris orRome, diversify the ordinary routine. Like the men,talking, gossip and scandal are the occupation of theirlives. All classes enjoy abundance of liberty, more so, Ithink, than among us. The complete envelopment of theface and person disguises them effectually from the nearestrelatives, and destroying, when convenient, all distinction ofrank, gives unrestrained freedom. The bazars are crowdedwith women in this most ungraceful disguise. The weeklybath and constant visits consume a large share of theirtime; and Thursday afternoon is devoted to a mock pilgrimage to some shrine outside the town, or else to thegrave of some relation. It was curious to meet a lady ofrank on an occasion of this kind, mounted en cavalier ona tall Toorkoman horse, which she managed with skill.Her female attendants surrounded her, riding in the samestyle; and her other servants remained at a short distance,some in front, and some behind. If no Persians were toonear, they made little scruple of raising their veils, for theindulgence of our and their own curiosity. Women of thehigher classes frequently acquire a knowledge of readingand writing, and of the choice poetical works in theirnative language; as well as of the art of reading, though,perhaps, not of understanding, the Koran. In the royalfamily, in particular, and among the ladies of the tribe ofKajjar, these accomplishments are so common that theythemselves conduct their correspondence without the customary aid of a meerza, or secretary. Cooking, or at leastit* superintendence, is another of their pastimes, especiallyamong the Kajjar ladies. One of the princesses, whosehusband was of similar rank, and was on intimate termsof acquaintance with my husband, used frequently to sendme savoury dishes at our dinner-hour. An intimationalways accompanied the viands, of their being the preparation of the "Shazadeh Khanum," the lady princess, herself.Sometimes a very young lamb, roasted whole, decked withflowers, with a rich stuffing of chesnuts or pistachios,would appear as our pièce de résistance; or else dolma,which consists of cabbages or oranges stuffed with forced-meat.The latter is an achievement in the culinary art.The confectionary, which is the test of a lady's proficiencyin gastronomic science, was of great variety, and exceedingly good. Persian confectionary, in general, is seldomentitled to any praise; for, though endless in exteriorvariety, it has only one flavour, that of sugar. Persianladies are accused of indulging to excess in excitingbeverages, by which I mean those contrary to the religiouslaw. I myself never saw the slightest approach to anything of the kind; and I am disposed to believe thereis no foundation for the accusation. Of all places in theworld Tehran is the most addicted to scandal and detraction: they are its pastime and its business. I mustconfess, however, that I once saw a princess, during a visit,with a special teapot by her side, out of the spout of whichshe drank from time to time. No one could tell what itcontained. She herself declared it was physic.

The above is Persian female life in its best aspect. Iflooked at in its worst, I am sure fearful tragedies andscenes of horror would be revealed. Power in the anderoonis nearly despotic. An immense deal of cruelty, even murder itself, can be committed in the haram, without anyatonement. A needy, harsh, disappointed, profligate man,responsible to no one, often wreaks his temper on the persons least capable of resistance. But he, too, is often thesufferer by his severities. An ill-treated slave, male orfemale, sometimes one of his wives, will administer a potion,and terminate his career–perhaps without designing sotragical a result. Detection is not easy, and many deathsare attributed to the practices of the anderoon. When awoman finds herself neglected and cast aside, and that shehas ceased to please, she sometimes has recourse to incantations and endeavours to bewitch her husband. Shedecks herself, and, if possible, him, with charms and talismans; she presents nazr–as an offering to God or to anyof the prophets or saints is called–of a sheep, or anythingelse (like the Jews of old), which is afterwards distributedamong the poor. I may mention that Imām Hoosseinis the special favourite of the women in Persia. An oldwoman in my service once told me she cared very littlefor Mahommed, as she irreverently called him, but thatshe had a deep affection for Imām Hoossein. No doubther attachment was founded on the scenic representationof his sufferings she had annually seen at the Tazeea. IfImām Hoossein, or whatever patron the forlorn dame mayhave adopted, should not yield to her supplications, shethen has recourse to a love-potion. I do not know all theingredients of which this compound is formed; but incantation enters in a large degree into its preparation. Oneof the Persian secretaries of the mission told me itwas made of all sorts of horrible things, one of which, Iremember, was a frog. Not seldom, however, the doseis too powerful, and puts an end to the patient's worldlycares for ever. I mentioned before that Suleiman Agha,one of our servants, urged as a plea for one of his unceasing divorces that his "burnt father" of a wife (meaningthat his wife's father was burning) had on a certain occasion nearly killed him, by administering a love-draught.The very memory of it seemed to renew all his horror,quite forgetting the ill-treatment which had provoked herto seek help in this dangerous remedy. The grand ambition of every married woman is to have several sons, asthrough them she is secured consideration and a provisionin advanced years. Daughters, as usual, count as nothing.

The mortality among children is immense, owing toneglect, ignorance, and laziness. I remember a littleprince, of eight years of age, who came to see my children. His stockings dropped into a pool of water, andhis nurse made him wear them when quite wet. He issince dead, and this is the fate of all weak and delicatechildren. None but the strong children survive; and theresult is that the Persians, though few in number, arestrong, stout, and hardy. The population of Persia issupposed not to increase; nor with causes like these inoperation could it well do so. Dr. Cloquet, the Shah'sFrench physician, son and nephew of the two famous surgeons of the same name, expressed to me his convictionthat not above three children in ten outlived their thirdyear. Ladies, of even moderate wealth and station, nevernurse their children, and do not seem to care for themwhen they are very young. Afterwards they are affectionate mothers. These nurses have a habit of quietingtheir charge, and their own children too, with bits ofopium, of a size which our own doctor assured me wasquite astounding.

Among the Persians an odd system of nomenclaturefor their wives is commonly adopted. Instead of usingtheir names, they avoid doing so; and when addressing orspeaking of their wives, they designate them by the nameof the wife's eldest son. Thus, instead of saying Zooleikha, for instance, he will call her Mader e Ali, motherof Ali. Khanum (lady) is, however, the term preferred.The Sadr Azim, or Prime Minister, I am told, alwaystalks of his wife, who is his cousin, under the designationof Dookhter e Amooüm (my uncle's daughter). But hisExcellency is somewhat peculiar in his phraseology. Whenever he ascends to the regions of high diplomacy (wherever they may be), his favourite and incessant asseveration is, Beh marg e Kassim (By the death of Kassim!).Kassim is his eldest son.

⁶ This name, so full of false pretension, was introduced by theRussians, and for no good motive. The word "vezeer," they said,implied "minister," consequently they were vezeers. It certainly doesmean minister, but only a Minister of State, which a minister plenipotentiary is not. Thus a spurious consequence is acquired, which theEnglish have been forced to partake in self-defence.

CHAPTER X.

Approach of Nowrooz – Dunning derveeshes – Ceremonial of the Nowrooz – Her Majesty's birthday – Entertainment to Persians – Wines of Sheeraz and Ispahan – Dinner on a large scale – Migration to the hills – Value of water – Our encampment – The Mission village – Sanctuary – Miraculous cow – Refugees in the Missions – Civil and criminal law.

March 10th.–NOWROOZ (New Year's Day) is approaching.Colonel S— wished to-day to visit the Prime Minister,but he was informed that his Excellency was busily engaged in selecting shawls. The Shah on the 22nd of thismonth bestows on all his courtiers some mark of hisbounty: Cashmere shawls to those of high rank; descending thence in a sliding-scale to cloth coats and spangledmuslin. It is a heavy tax on his Majesty, who, however,it may be conjectured, finds compensation elsewhere.Though the splendour of the Nowrooz has decayed, andthe value of the gifts has decreased, the total abrogationof this ancient national festival would scarcely be politic.It is a season of general festivity. The Persians havebeen more rational than we in this matter. Instead ofchoosing the winter solstice for its celebration, they haveselected the moment when the sun is entering the northernhemisphere for marking the commencement of the year.On the 22nd of March every family, attired in new garments, is seated at the dinner-cloth (there being notable), which is covered with food, according to the meansof the master of the household. A large basin of wateris placed in the centre, which, when the sun crosses theequator, is supposed to be ruffled by the jerk the earthreceives in consequence. At that moment they all embraceand wish each other a happy new year; they then partakeof food. There is a simplicity and appearance of affection in this ceremony at variance with the character ofPersians.

About this time I was crossing one day to the gardenon the other side of the street, when I heard a loud voiceexclaim, "Hoo; Allāh Tâālā; Khoodā Vezeer e Mookhtarpaëdar kooned, khoodā khānumra omrdihed!" (He isthe great God; God preserve the Vezeer Mookhtar; Godpreserve the Khanum!) These were the sounds utteredby a wild-looking derveesh, seated in a tent four feet high,and the same in length, which was pitched under thegarden wall. By his side he had sown a field of wheat,about a yard square, as a hint, that if he were not removed by a consideration, he would remain until thewheat was fit for the sickle and cut; screaming "Hoo,hak" incessantly, and blowing on his cow's horn. Butour derveesh was too friendly and polite for any suchextremities. It turned out that this was a tax annuallylevied on the respectable householders of Tehran. I sawanother of the fraternity at the Russian Minister's door,and various others encamped at the houses of the peopleof the city, each with his field of wheat. They get theirpresents, and then depart. I am told that a few yearsago there was one of this brotherhood, named Lootee Ali,Buffoon Ali, or Derveesh Ali, who used to bestow in theutmost good humour the most dreadful abuse on everyone he met, from the Shah, with whom he was a greatfavourite, downwards. He gained a great deal of money,which he spent entirely in charity. Their pertinacity inextortion is said to be marvellous. I remember hearingof a very mad, opium-eating, chers- or bang-consumingderveesh, who demanded a large sum from the EnglishResident at Bushire, which the latter refused. The holybrother said nothing, but looked iniquity. He plantedhimself at the gate, and planted the wheat too, close underthe staff where the English flag used to fly. For threedays he remained silent. On the fourth he exclaimed,"Hak, hak," in a loud monotonous voice, and maintained that cry almost incessantly day and night, forthree days, without any symptom of yielding on eitherside. I ought to remark, that to use violence for hisexpulsion would have been injudicious. On the fourthday the derveesh drew forth his horn, and, alternatingbetween it and the everlasting "Hak, hak!" the Resident was reduced to despair, and almost to yielding. Atlast he remembered that his flagstaff required washing.In a short time ten or fifteen seamen, summoned from aman-of-war in the roads, were mounted on the flagstaff,with an abundant supply of buckets of water. In a fewminutes the flagstaff was well washed, and the derveeshtoo, and put to flight in discomfiture.

March 22, Nowrooz.–Every one in new garments to-day. The whole of the servants of the Mission, somesixty or seventy in number, arrayed in large new cloaksof English cloth–so called at least, having English stampsand marks on it, though shrewdly suspected not to be ofEnglish parentage. They looked exceedingly well. Atnine o'clock one of the staff of the Foreign Office, conducting some twenty ferashes laden with immense trayscontaining sugarloaves, sugarcandy, and sweetmeats,presented himself to offer the good wishes of the Shah forthe coming year. At noon all the Missions waited on hisMajesty, to offer congratulations on the part of theirsovereigns. As they had a private audience for this purpose previously to the grand salām or levee, there is littleto describe. His Majesty is seated in full costume, halfPersian, half European, loaded with the most costlyjewellery, his enormous jewelled crown, and sword blazingwith diamonds from hilt to point, lying by his side, waiting for the admission of the public before undergoing thefatigue of bearing the weighty diadem. As his Majestyis in the highest degree affable and condescending, andabounds in agreeable conversation, as a Persian kingought to do, half his life being spent in talking, the audience passes off highly satisfactorily. In the afternoon afine elephant belonging to the king, accompanied by hiskeeper and some musicians, came to wish us a happy newyear. He entered the low gateway into the lawn on hisknees, and performed sundry evolutions; he then got hispresent, and went away. The day after Nowrooz thelabour of the season began, and continued for a weeksubsequently. Every acquaintance of the Minister ofsuitable rank must be visited; the days are spent invisits, and every visit produces its deluge of tea, coffee,and pipes (water pipes). Then come the bazdeed, thereturn visits, with a repetition of the same sufferings.Altogether a good constitution is requisite; but, asmy husband used to maintain, it was necessary to dosomething once a year for the good of her Majesty'sservice.

Now begins the glorious weather of Persia, lastinguntil the middle of May, when it becomes a great deal toohot. In April the nightingales commence their songs, andthe rose-trees begin to open their blossoms. Our gardenabounded in the former, who used to beguile the entirenight with their minstrelsy. But I leave these things tothe imagination, which is much more potent than the pen–than mine at least.

May 24th.–This was another day of fatigue, in tea andcoffee drinking, in honour of her Majesty's birthday. Froman early hour visitors poured in to offer their congratulations, and among them two officers in full court costume,on the part of the Shah and the Prime Minister, to conveytheir congratulations on the auspicious occasion. In thefull-dress of the court, the tall black lambskin cap ischanged for a turban of shawl; and in place of the stockings without shoes, on entering the room a pair of redcloth boots reaching to the knee is worn. I suppose thelatter is a substitute for the heavy Tartar boot worn atthe courts of the Moghul sovereigns. It was upon me,however, that the heavier toil of the day fell. At nightthere was a dinner-party of thirty-six persons to celebratethe event, and wish prosperity to the sovereign of England.When it is considered that the attendants were all Persians, and that everything is conducted as like Europe aspossible, it may be imagined what time and labour wereexpended in drilling the Diggories of the Mission. Thelabour was certainly great, yet I never was reduced tosuch extremity as a lady in Tehran, who was on suchoccasions forced to aid in dressing the dinner herself.Twelve of the guests were Persian gentlemen; and asin Persian estimation a solemn dinner is incomplete unlessthe fare is exceedingly in excess; and farther, as thenumerous retinue of servants accompanying each Persianexpects a share in the feast, it may be imagined what anundertaking an entertainment of this kind is in Tehran.To complete the matter, I was excluded from the banquetin consequence of the presence of the Persian gentlemen.I gladly, therefore, spent my solitary evening, restingafter the heat and toil of the day, shut up in my anderoon,surrounded by a retinue of dogs, who would not havebeen more out of place than myself, and who were greatlydisturbed by the distant sounds of the band playing Godsave the Queen, which it continued to do for four or fivehours, only varying occasionally with the beautiful Russian air of God preserve the Emperor. It was reallyamusing to see the deference these dogs showed poorCrab. Greyhounds, pointers, &c., would fall flat whenhe sprang at them, if he thought they monopolised toomuch of my attention. There was one rugged fellow wecalled Diver, who arrived from Asterabad with someEuropean travellers. He approved apparently of ourmode of living, for he hid himself in an empty room inthe Mission for two days after their departure, and remained with us ever since. One of the gentlemen of theMission afterwards happened to visit Asterabad, and sawa numerous independent connexion of Diver's, who supported themselves by going into the sea and eating thesmall fish they managed to catch. I should perhapsapologise for writing at all about our dogs, but they wereso much of companions to me in Persia, I cannot avoidrecurring to them. To return to the banquet; it waskept up till a late hour. Persians, I am told, delight inchampagne, next to brandy. On these public occasions,however, the most confirmed topers refrain from touchingwine, lest in a promiscuous assembly of their countrymentheir reputation might suffer damage from evil report.But I hear that some among them retired to a quietnook with one or two trusty boon companions–

"They had been fou for weeks thegither"–

where they made amends by quaffing champagne andsherry in tumblers.

Persians are extremely fond of European wines, stillnone among them, even the richest, are willing to undergothe expense of its conveyance from Europe. They satisfythemselves with the thin growths of their own vineyards,quantity compensating for quality. In almost all thechief towns a great deal of wine is manufactured, andcertainly not intended for the sole consumption of Armenians. That of Sheeraz has, of course, a wide reputation,and the wine of Ispahan is thought not much inferior. Iremember an Englishman imposing with success as choiceBurgundy, a bottle of the latter on a party of Europeanconnoisseurs. Still I am told the wines of Persia are farfrom being wholesome, either from imperfect manufacture,or from being used too soon. There seems to be noreason why a country abounding in the choicest grapesshould be unable to produce good wine. The manufacture is of the coarsest kind, and, one would think, anantidote to excess. The bunches are collected withoutany selection, or the removal of the unsound grapes, andthrown into a heap, stalks and all, and the juice is extracted by the pressure of naked feet.

On the birthday of their sovereigns, the foreign representatives endeavour to celebrate the occasion with asmuch display as the country admits of. An exhibitionof fireworks was generally the mode in which the RussianMission sought notoriety. Some years ago, before myarrival in Persia, my husband thought of a somewhatnovel expedient for imparting celebrity to her Majesty'sbirthday. This was to give a dinner to all the beggarsin Tehran on the 24th of May. It appears to have beenan extraordinary scene, as described to me by one of thegentlemen of the Mission. The feast was put under themanagement of one of the Persian secretaries. He causeda number of large tents, without their walls, to be pitchedin a spacious piece of ground adjoining the garden, wherethe horses used to be exercised. He then hired a numberof cooks, and a collection of enormous cauldrons, five orsix feet wide, and the same in depth; which were placedon blazing fires close to the tents. Something like a flockof sheep was purchased. Notice was sent to the beggars,that at twelve o'clock on the 24th dinner would be ready.Long before the time every avenue was crowded withthe blind, the lame, the infirm, and the various extraordinary objects with which Tehran is crowded. Thegates were opened, a rush was made, and in a momentthe enclosure was filled. The dinner consisted of pillaosof mutton and rice, bread, and sugar sherbet, that is, eausucrée; and the rule was, that each person, having eatento repletion, was to depart by another gate. Nothingcould exceed the confusion and contention and clamoursfor admittance. The walls were scaled, and the gatesnearly burst open. The uproar was compared to a towntaken by assault. Those inside, the women especially,filled their pockets, and said they had not had enough;and when driven out at one gate, they went round andentered as fresh visitors at the other, making a new attackon the eatables. The dinner-party to the beggars wasconverted into an entertainment to all the workmen andsmall tradesmen and tradeswomen in the neighbourhood.So great and unexpected was the crowd, that the suppliesran low, and purchases were obliged to be made at thecook-shops in the bazar. All were at length filled, andthe crowd by slow degrees departed. Seven thousandwas the number, according to Persian computation, whichby English calculation may be reduced to less than half.The feast had certainly reached an unexpected magnitude,but the object aimed at was, I conjecture gained, for a greatsensation was produced. If Persian benedictions couldserve her Majesty, she had them to satiety from each guestwho partook of the pillaos. The succeeding year the feastwas renewed, with the precaution of placing a strong guardof soldiers at each gate, and another in the middle of theenclosure.

May 25th.–Notwithstanding that we are more thanthree thousand feet above the level of the sea, the sun'srays have acquired intense heat, and it is time to makean exodus to the mountains, which our great dinneralone prevented us from doing before. The Shah, witha large portion of the court, has already left the city,and gone to reside in one of his summer or gardenhouses, near the walls, and by-and-by he will move upto the mountains. Next month nearly half the inhabitantswill have emigrated to avoid the heat and the unhealthyatmosphere of Tehran. This capital has nothing whatever in its favour. It is situated in a desolate plain, tenmiles to the south of the Elboorz range of mountains,which run from west to east. It is supposed to contain80,000 inhabitants in winter. The above beautiful rangeof mountains, crowned with the magnificent peak ofDemawend, saves Tehran from being one of the mostfrightful places in the world. It contains fine bazars,constructed by the late Prime Minister, and a good dealof trade converges here from the four quarters of Persia.There are no buildings of note, excepting the chiefmosque, and water is so bad and so scarce, that theportion required for drinking is brought daily from adistance by all those who can afford it.

May 27th.–We had to-day a specimen of the valueof water in Persia. The two Gebr gardeners, with threePersian soldiers of the guard at the gate of the Mission,rushed towards the room we were sitting in. One of theformer had a large bunch of his beard in his hand, whichhe stretched out at arm's length. One of the soldiersheld a handkerchief to his mouth, as if indicating theloss of a tooth, and all had their shirts and inner veststorn open at the neck, which among Persians is an unfailing sign of woe, as among the Israelites of old. TheGebrs are a stolid immoveable race, but this was anopportunity for emotion not to be neglected. The Fatherof the beard, as an Arab would say, Ardesheer, was spokesman: "Kooshteh shudem, moordem!–I am killed, Iam dead! Is this the way to treat the Vezeer e Mookhtar's gardener?" &c. Tehran is dependent for its supplyof water, in part on wells, of which the water is exceedingly bad and unwholesome, and in part on variouskanāts which have been conducted into the city. Two daysand two nights of each week are allotted for supplying theextensive gardens and premises of the Mission with waterfrom one of these kanāts. But as the stream enters onthe north side of the city, while we resided exactly atthe south side, it has to pass through the ordeal of a mileand a half among thirsty Tehranees before it reaches theMission. It is consequently necessary to station guardsat intervals to watch its safe progress through the town.All sorts of schemes are in request to waylay the water.When a watchman is absent, or remiss, or bribed, thestream is turned out of its course, and every one helpshimself or fills his cistern. At another time everythingseems correct; no impediment occurs to the water, yetnone of it reaches the Mission. The cunning Iraneeshave bored channels underground from their houses tothe stream, and thus purloined nearly the whole of thewater. Knowing the urgent wants of the citizens, thesepeculations would have been overlooked; but very often,as in the present instance, the theft was supported bymain force, leading to blows, and a battle, in which theMission guards and servants, being the weaker party,generally fared ill. Then followed demands for punishment, in exacting which it was necessary to be pertinacious, if only to save her Majesty's Mission from dyingof thirst. What made these beatings of the servantsmore provoking was the donation in free gift to thecitizens by Colonel S— of the whole of the water towhich he was entitled by right. He even nominated ameerāb, lord of the water, to superintend its fair distribution through the different streets. For my part, I believethat this dignified appointment only led to the enrichmentof his lordship, who sold the water to the best bidder; hewould be a strange Persian if he did not. As I beforementioned, the villagers contend for the possession ofstreams of water in the same manner, but with muchmore fierceness; their crops being often dependent forirrigation on the result of the combat. These kanāts leadto other causes of quarrel. If a man in authority whohas constructed one of these beneficent works happensto lead his kanāt in the direction of that of his weakerneighbour, his charitable views become so comprehensive,that he seldom hesitates to undermine and carry off thewhole of the water into his own channel. A fight follows,either on the spot or before the Kazee, in both cases theresult being much the same.

May 29th.–We have encamped at the Mission villageof Goolahek, seven miles from town, near the foot ofElboorz, and 3800 feet above the level of the sea. Oursis certainly a camp on a large scale. We have sleeping-tents, nursery-tents, and my private sitting-room-tent,all enclosed in a high wall of canvas, and forming theanderoon. Then detached are the dining-tent, drawing-room-tent, and tents for each of the gentlemen of theMission. To me it looks very magnificent, yet I am toldit is paltry in comparison with the good old times thatare gone. From the size of these tents, some of thembeing thirty feet in length, their double roofs and doublewalls several feet apart, I had anticipated a comfortableresidence during the summer. But I am disappointedbeyond measure; the dust and the heat being intolerable,in spite of a stream of water which I had caused to flowthrough my tent. The Russian Mission is encamped atanother village, half a mile distant. The Shah has movedup to his summer-palace at Niaveran, close under thehills, and the whole country is covered with white tentsand encampments. We are now in the district of Shamirān, which, I am told, is the equivalent of Semiramis.The villages are surrounded with fruit-trees of everydescription, particularly white mulberries, of which thePersians eat enormous quantities: indeed their consumption of every kind of fruit is prodigious. The camp-life is still more monotonous than that of the town; thedistances being much greater, visits and gossip are rarer.It is a curious circ*mstance that from nine to ten in themorning seems to be the hottest part of the day, hottereven than two o'clock. The heat is so intense that it isimpossible to move out until the sun has actually set, andeven then the ground is reeking with heat. At thathour we mount our horses, and take a slow languid rideabout the hills and villages. Darkness so quickly followssunset that the ride is a short one. Walking is out ofthe question. Decidedly Persia is not a country to selectas a residence from choice. Neither can it be healthy;for though the natives are strong and stout, as negroesare in the most pestiferous swamps of Africa, still onesees extremely few persons of very advanced years. Nearlyall the Europeans at Tehran seem delicate; the Russiansappear to bear the climate best, though they are said totake less care of their health.

The term Mission-village deserves some explanation.It means that the Shah has bestowed the "teeool" ofthe village on the Mission; this again implies that hisMajesty has renounced his claim over the revenue,and bestowed it on the British legation. The revenueamounts to 30 tomans, or 15l., but the donation confersconsiderable authority on the British Minister, whothereby becomes lord paramount in the village. It entitles him to claim a piece of land for pitching his camp,and confers many immunities according to Persian usage.On the other hand, the benefit to the villagers is immense. No tax-gatherers molest them, no soldiers arequartered on them, no levies of provisions are exacted;they are under English protection, and are thereby safefrom molestation. The consequence is that the village ismost flourishing, the value of its land has increased, andmany people build houses within it merely to enjoysimilar privileges.

This system of teeool is one of the great banes ofPersia. Its evil is admitted, but too many interests areconcerned in its maintenance to permit its abrogationeven by the despotic monarch of Persia. Custom hasgiven the owner of the teeool exclusive rights over eggs,fowls, lambs, firewood, fodder, fruit, &c., and, if hechances to be a man of rank, he takes care that customshall have the amplest latitude. In our own case, however, I found it of very little profit, and my dream ofabundance of fresh eggs was soon dissipated. ThePersian peasant is perhaps the best part of the nation, butoppression has made him callous, and not very sensible toemotions of gratitude. We were, therefore, welcomevisitors, prices were doubled, and a present for the celebration of the Tazeea, with an English cloth cloak atNowrooz for the Ked Khoda, or chief of the village, werethe incumbrances charged upon our fief.

June 3rd.–One is often reminded in this country of thestate of manners in Europe some centuries ago, whenarmies consisted of feudal retainers, when power took theplace of law, when might made right. Sanctuary inshrines is still in full operation in Persia; and thoughoften an evil, it is on the whole, as it was in Europe inthose days, a vast benefit. Where the law is weak andthe administration corrupt, society requires some extraneous support independent of both. The guilty, it is true,sometimes escape, but the innocent and weak are oftenprotected. A struggle between the government and thepriesthood relative to the right of asylum in shrines,mosques, and other places of sanctity, has been long goingon; one party seeking its overthrow, the other its maintenance for the preservation of their own influence overthe people. Intelligence has just arrived from Tabreezof an extraordinary device adopted by the moollas of thatcity for restoring the right of bast, or sanctuary, to itsancient vigour. A cow being conducted to the slaughterhouse, in passing by a noted shrine in the middle of thecity, twice took refuge in the holy spot. On the thirdrepetition of the disregard of this appeal to the power ofthe defunct saint, the butcher was struck dead. How thisportion of the miracle was effected I know not. The newsspread in a moment through the city, and all the zeal ofthe Moslems was roused. In general it finds a vent inthe pillage of the Armenians or the Jews; but on thisoccasion it took a different direction. Miracles in abundance were performed. The blind saw, the lame walked,maladies innumerable were healed. A pitch of enthusiasmwas raised which was described to be "frightful." Illuminations on an unheard-of scale took place during threesuccessive nights; the shrine was exalted into an inviolable sanctuary, and gamblers and drunkards who shoulddishonour its precincts were to be slain. But the government was strong in the hands of the Ameer e Nizam, thePrime Minister. I may as well now anticipate events, and mention that, before many months had elapsed, someof the principal instigators of these prodigies werebrought to Tehran, where they remained in much discomfort, and were only released on promising to work no moremiracles:–

De par le Roi défense à Dieu,
De faire miracle dans ce lieu.

The foreign Missions are inviolable asylums; no one canbe molested within their walls. Bahman Meerza, theShah's uncle, and governor of the valuable province ofAzerbijan, took refuge in the Russian Mission. Thesequel of this step was his transmission to Russia as theguest of the Emperor, where he now enjoys a largepension; still he pines for Persia and pillao.

The Shah's stable is an asylum, almost against the Shahhimself. Unless in an extraordinary case, his Majestywould not like to use force in the removal of a person whohad thus thrown himself on his protection or on his mercy.The reason of the stable having this sanctity conferred on it seems lost in antiquity. In passing among the treeswhere our horses were picketed, I was surprised to seeseated there a Persian gentleman, on approaching whom,I perceived him to be perfectly blind, his eyes havingbeen removed from the sockets. On ascertaining that wewere near him, he stood up and loudly claimed theprotection of the Dowlet Aaleeya Inglees, the sublimeEnglish Government. I forget this gentleman's name,whose condition and striking appearance greatly engagedmy sympathy. He was a khan, and chief of a tribe inKermān or Yezd, and he and his family were among themost atrocious criminals in Persia. The murders andacts of violence committed by him and his sons exceededbelief. In retribution, he himself had been blinded, andtwo of the latter had been put to death. Even this didnot cure his turbulence. He had lately committed somenew act of atrocity, and fearing the consequences, hadfled for safety to our stable, with the hope also of obtaining English intercession. His pitiable condition prevented an order for his immediate expulsion, which wouldhave been considered discreditable; so the khan was leftto manage matters as he could. Finding himself disappointed, he in a few days withdrew; having no doubtapplied a bribe in the proper quarter, and secured impunity for his misdeeds. In town, criminals used often totake refuge in the Mission. To deliver them to justicewould have brought on the Mission bud nāmee, or badreputation–a subject to which, curiously enough, Persiansconstantly advert; so at night they are ordered to depart,and seek for safety at some other shrine than that of thesovereign of England. I have seen it necessary to useconsiderable force on such occasions, and loud screams ofAmān e Padshah Inglees! Amān e Vezeer Mookhtar!Amān Khanum! Amān Sahib e Koochik! (Quarter fromthe Queen! Quarter from the Minister! Quarter fromthe lady! Quarter from the little gentleman!-meaningmy son of a few months old) have reached my anderoon.Persians of all classes used to take asylum. Slavesescaping from the cruelty of their masters were often tobe seen. These were undoubted objects of commiseration. After allowing them to remain some days, untilanger had cooled, a reconciliation was effected to thesatisfaction of all concerned; a solemn promise beingexacted that no repetition of ill treatment was to occur.The promise would certainly be faithfully kept duringsome months. Princes, khans, military officers, mightat times be seen taking refuge within the Mission walls.The culpable among these, such as embezzlers of publicmoney, fraudulent bankers, oppressors, were invited towithdraw without delay; while the victims of tyrannyand violence were allowed to remain until an opportunityoccurred for an amicable arrangement of their affairs byreconciliation, compromise, or some other mode. I usedto take a warm interest in these details; and as suchthings were constantly happening, they made living in myanderoon in Teheran less monotonous than I at first foundit. For though, as a woman, I was in Persia everymoment reminded by some trifling incident or other of thedegraded position of my sex in the East, yet I was contentwith the reflection of the high estimation in which myhusband's name was held; when his word was as valid asthe most formal document, and when the name of Englishman was respected from Bushire to the Aras.

In Persia there is nominally a code of laws; in realitythere is none. Impulse, passion, corruption, expediency,power, are the real dispensers of the law, the real arbitersof right and wrong. In such a state of society, the practice of asylum may be considered a blessing. It is theright of appeal of innocence and weakness against tyranny.The Koran does, of course, provide a code, however imperfect, for the administration of justice. But it referschiefly to criminal cases–the law of retaliation, blood forblood, an eye for an eye. In practice, nevertheless, theadministrators of the criminal law pay little regard to theordinances of the Koran. The bastinado and a fine arethe sovereign remedies for all degrees of guilt, variedoccasionally with amputation of the hand or the head.The innumerable commentators of the Koran have notneglected to provide it with a most ample civil code,which is administered by the dignitaries among theMahommedan priesthood–the kazees, moollas, moojteheds,sheikh-ool-Islams, &c. They, however, only pronouncethe law: the execution of it rests with the officers ofGovernment. From this double mode of administrationsome conception may be formed of the tide of corruptionthe plaintiff and defendant have to encounter. As, however, it is the constant aim of the Government to controlthe jurisdiction and influence of the clergy, it has, within arecent period, established Courts of Justice, in which alarge share of civil jurisprudence is conducted. I havenot heard that any improvement in integrity has been theresult of this innovation.

In all the large cities of Persia there are moojteheds,or moollas of high degree, of unimpeachable integrity,who receive the highest veneration from the people. Someamong them are so scrupulous that they refuse to pronounce the decrees of the law, lest perchance they shouldbe guilty of injustice.

CHAPTER XI.

Intense heat – Excursion up the mountains – Frightful torrent – Welcome new moon – Rigorous Mussulman fast – Rebellion – Bābeeism or socialism – Curious incident at the execution of Bāb – A socialist king – Bābee executions – Insurrection at Zenjan.

July.–THE summer drags its lazy length along, the heatincreases, and our stream has dried up. The thermometernow rises to 110° in the tents; a degree of heat which,with its prostrating influence, to be understood must beendured. We therefore determined to seek refuge in themountains to the north, in the district of Lavessan, fourstages from our tents. The road being totally impracticable for wheeled vehicles, I chose a beautiful little ass formy steed. I found, nearly to my cost, that a more dangerous selection could not be made; for, unlike thehorses, the asses of Persia are afflicted with a dreadfulspirit of pugnacity. It was only by a most fortunatechance that mine on one occasion was prevented fromrushing down a precipice with me to attack one of hiskind who was braying a defiance in a field below. He wasthe smallest little fellow of his species, yet he never hesitated to attack the largest horses, of whom he had vanquished several. On being returned to the Persiangentleman from whom he had been borrowed, he wastransferred to a moolla, whom, to the great mirth of hismaster, he nearly killed in one of his encounters. Theexposure and fatigue of the journey were so great that Irepented of the undertaking; but on reaching our destination, we found our tents in a cool spot at the foot of a greatpass, leading to a lofty plain covered with the flocks andtents of the wandering tribes, who had ascended to thatcool region from the torrid plains of Verameen, nearTehran.

We passed a month in Lavessan, which is ever memorable to me, from the intolerable fright I there received.Our camp was near a deep ravine, in which ran a stream.One afternoon a storm came on, accompanied by such adeluge of rain as I never before had seen. In a fewminutes the tent was filled with water, and the air becamenearly dark. Suddenly a rumbling and very appallingsound was heard; it increased, it approached, it roared,and shouts and yells went forth the whole length of thevalley. We rushed in terror out of the tent into thedrenching rain; I, at least, ignorant of the nature of theconvulsion. Down it came, bellowing and pealing like theloudest thunder. The servants and villagers screamed"Syl Amed, Syl Amed," and cries and shouts precededits course. It was a furious torrent which had brokenloose. We groped about in the dark, not knowingwhere to go, or from what quarter the danger had come,and floundering through the ditches. So great was ourterror that the waving of a field of yellow corn, not far off,was imagined to be the torrent in full rush towards us.The person least frightened of our forlorn group wasthe Persian nurse, who, with the baby asleep in her arms,endeavoured to reassure me. At last, it was ascertainedto have deposited itself in safety in the deep ravine, andwe ventured to return to our tents. At one time we werethinking of climbing up a tree, which would have been oflittle use if the mad torrent had reached us. Two of themembers of the Mission had a narrow escape. Only thatmorning had they removed their tents from the dry bed ofthe stream, high up on the bank. Their horses were stillpicketed in the same spot; but a brave mehter or groomcut their head and heel ropes, or they would have infalliblybeen dashed to pieces. At dinner nobody could touch aparticle of food, the gentlemen seeming to consider winethe best restorative after such a shock. In the morningI hastened to look into the ravine. It was terrible to behold, and inconceivable. Every other sound was inaudiblein the mighty roar. Enormous rocks, six or eight feet indiameter, had been hurled down from the pass. The bridgehad been carried away. Immense trees were torn up bythe roots, and others which had previously been growingin the ravine, were snapped across like twigs. The sightalone of the ravine was fearful.

These torrents are common in Persia, though rarely onsuch a scale as the one I have described. The dry bed ofa river is therefore not a safe place of encampment, butPersians seem generally to prefer that kind of locality.

One of the last days we spent in Lavessan brought joyto the villagers and to our servants, or, in more ambitiousphraseology, brought joy from the Wall of China toBelgrade. It was the Eed e Ramazān, the eve of thefeast, and closing of the fast of Ramazān. Out walking in the evening, we saw various groups peering intothe sky to catch a view of the shadowy crescent of thenew moon, before its rays are obscured by the darkness.A clear evening is of importance, for if the moon isrendered invisible by clouds, another day of penance mustbe endured. Generally, however, some observer blessedwith a feeling heart and good eyes contrives, clouds ornot, to see the Queen of Night, particularly as in doubtfulcases a reward follows a well-authenticated attestation ofthe fact. In the present instance we were, I think, thefirst to announce the joyful tidings, and almost at the samemoment we heard the sound of the Shah's gun in Shemeran, announcing that to-morrow was to be a day ofrejoicing. The Mussulman fast is a severe trial at thisseason. It commences before the dawn, and does notterminate until twenty minutes after sunset. Neitherfood nor liquid must be touched, nor, sorest privation ofall, the kaleeoun or chibouk. Considering that the use oftobacco and smoking are nearly a thousand years subsequent to Mahommed, it seems to me a nice point ofcasuistry, whether its observance is strictly necessary according to the "Law." The fast is rigidly observed in general, particularly by the lower classes, and by women of allranks. The latter are so peremptory on this point, inwhich they have public opinion on their side, that fewhusbands even among the freethinkers venture to infringethe fast. They know what a storm of malediction discovery would bring down upon their heads. The drinkersof wine almost always abstain during this month, takingcare to give themselves ample compensation the momentthe fast expires. It is on the labourer in the fields thatthis observance weighs most heavily. Toiling in theblazing sun, he cannot and does not refresh his parchedlips, and when night approaches he is so exhausted hecannot eat. His principal meal is just before the earliestdawn, when the fast begins. The servants of the foreignMissions are not remarkable for piety, yet, although allowable on a journey, not one of ours deviated from the injunctions of his faith in this matter. I hardly know whichis to be considered as most severe, the Lent of catholics,when properly observed, or the Ramazān. In the former,liquids are not prohibited, but only a single meal is admissible in the twenty-four hours. A Mahommedan mayeat and drink the entire night, if he can. The Persianwomen I have had in my service used to begin the nightby smoking a little, then they would take tea, then eat asurprising quantity of fruit, and after their meal just beforedawn would go to sleep, and sleep without intermissionalmost all day. It used to annoy me to see my nursesobserve the fast, but no expostulation availed. "Kill me,Khanum," they used to say, "but we must fast." Themortality after the Ramazān is very great, showing howinjurious it is to the health.

September 6th.–This year has been remarkable forcivil and religious wars waged in various parts of Persia.At Meshed, on the eastern extremity of the kingdom, ason of a maternal uncle of the Shah had for many monthsraised the standard of rebellion, and sustained a vigoroussiege against his sovereign's forces. It terminated in hiscapture, by treachery, which was succeeded by his execution, and that of one of his sons and two of his brothers. Afew years ago a wholesale massacre would have followedthis bold rebellion, but European influence and unceasingexpostulation have softened Persian manners. It iscurious, though I believe true, that the English press hashad some share in producing this change. The strictureson Persian misgovernment, which sometimes appear inthe English journals, are viewed with anger and alarm,particularly when the evil-doers are held up by nameto public reprobation.

But a far more serious attempt at revolution has beenin progress in various parts of the kingdom. Under thedisguise of a new revelation, socialism and communismhave made advances in Mazenderan, Yezd, Fars, andZenjan, which would leave nothing to wish for in theaspirations of the reddest republican. Blood has flowedin torrents in crushing the malcontents, for terror andreligious hate walked hand in hand. For the renegadethere is no quarter in the Mahommedan code; far lesswhen to apostasy are added the startling doctrines ofuniversal spoliation, and, above all, of the relentlessslaughter of all Mussulmans, in particular of moollas,kazees, &c. This amiable sect is styled Bābee, fromBāb, a gate, in Arabic, the name assumed by its founder,meaning, I suppose, the gate to heaven.

This celebrated person, whose real name was Syed AliMahommed, was born forty years ago in Sheeraz, wherehis father was a merchant. When fifteen years of agehe was sent to prosecute his theological studies at Nejeff.Here he became acquainted with two derveeshes, withwhom he was for a considerable period on terms of greatintimacy. He was afterwards sent to Bushire to followcommercial pursuits, but he withdrew from society, andin a life of seclusion devoted himself to the religiousexercises commonly observed by derveeshes. Thesemystic practices are supposed to have affected his intellect After some changes he settled at Kazemein,near Bagdad, where he first divulged his pretensions tothe character of a prophet. Incensed at this blasphemy,the Turkish authorities issued orders for his execution,but he was claimed by the Persian consul as a subjectof the Shah, and sent to his native place. Here in ashort time he collected so many disciples around him,that imprisonment followed an investigation into his doctrines. It was debated whether he was to be treatedas a lunatic, or a blasphemer and unworthy descendantof the Prophet, but his life was saved by the voice of theSheikh ool Islam on his making a public recantation ofhis errors from the pulpit of one of the principal mosques.He contrived to escape from prison, and made his way toIspahan, where many people of distinction secretly embraced his opinions. Again arrested, he was sent to thefort of Cherek, in Azerbijan, and under the infliction ofthe bastinado he again recanted his errors. Six monthsafterwards, it having been ascertained that his doctrineswere obtaining rapid diffusion among all classes, he wasconveyed to Tabreez, and on the day of his arrival wasbrought out for execution in the great maïdan, or square.This was on the point of becoming a most remarkableevent, which would probably have overturned the throneand Islamism in Persia. A company of soldiers wasordered to despatch Bāb by a volley. When the smokecleared away, Bāb had disappeared from sight. It hadso happened that none of the balls had touched him; and,prompted by an impulse to preserve his life, he rushedfrom the spot. Had Bāb possessed sufficient presence ofmind to have fled to the bazar, which was within a fewyards of the place where he was stationed, he would inall probability have succeeded in effecting his escape. Amiracle palpable to all Tabreez would have been performed, and a new creed would have been established.But he turned in the opposite direction, and hid himselfin the guard-room, where he was immediately discovered,brought out, and shot. His body was thrown into theditch of the town, where it was devoured by the half-wilddogs which abound outside a Persian city. Bāb possesseda mild and benignant countenance, his manners werecomposed and dignified, his eloquence was impressive,and he wrote rapidly and well.

It would appear that in the beginning of his career hedid not wholly reject the established forms and doctrinesof the Mahommedan faith, but he reduced these to proportions so small as to be equivalent to their annulment,and thus rendered his speculations acceptable to themultitude. As his disciples increased so did his viewsenlarge. — — was acquainted with one of hisproselytes, who, however, adopted the principle of neveravowing his faith even to him. This man was in a respectable condition of life, and his statements were subsequently confirmed, though with some exaggeration, by amoolla of eminence, who had been converted to Bābeeism but had recanted his errors. His conversion,according to his own affirmation, had only been feignedin order to be able to dive into all the secrets of thesystem. It was a strange circ*mstance that among thosewho adopted Bāb's doctrine there should have been a largenumber of moollas, and even moojteheds, who hold ahigh rank as expounders of the law in the Mahommedanchurch. Many of these men sealed their faith with theirblood. Bāb's notions did not contain much originality.Atheism, under the disguise of pantheism, was the basisof his principles. Every single atom in the universe, hesaid, was actually God, and the whole universe collectively was God; not a representative of, or emanationfrom God, but God himself. Everything in short wasGod. Bāb was God, and every living creature down toeach lowest insect. Death was not real–it was onlyanother form of divinity, if such language has any signification at all. Virtue had no existence, neither hadvice; they were necessarily wholly indifferent, as beingportions or emanations of the Godhead. Rights of property had no existence, excepting in the equal division ofall things among the godly. But this was a fiction, thereal doctrine being the reign of the Saints,–that is, of theBābees,–and their possession of the goods of the ungodly,–in other words, the non-Bābees. It was the simplestof religions. Its tenets may be summed up in materialism,communism, and the entire indifference of good and eviland of all human actions. There was no antipathy, itwas affirmed, on the part of the Bābees to Christians,or to the followers of any other creed excepting Mahommedans, who, as they slew Bābees, ought to beexterminated. When the Bābee meerza was remindedof this being somewhat contrary to the doctrine of indifference of all human actions, he had no reply tomake.

One of the proofs alleged against Bāb's claim to adivine mission was the ungrammatical Arabic of his revelations, which could not consequently have descendedfrom heaven. The Koran is regarded as a miracle ofstyle and composition.

In the maxims of Bāb there does not seem to be amaterial difference from the doctrines alluded to in aformer page, as inculcated by Hassan Sabāh at Alamoot.In the reign of Kei Kobad, five hundred years after Christ,Mazdak spread widely through Persia his atheistical doctrines, not dissimilar from those of Bāb. Among themwas included the same principle of a division of property;and, strange to say, his creed was adopted by the monarchKei Kobad. Nousheerwan, the son of that sovereign,put to death Mazdak, with thousands of his followers.

The present Shah shows no disposition to follow theexample of his predecessor. Mazenderān, owing to itssecluded position, is perhaps the province in Persia mostinfected with a fanatical attachment to the Mahommedanfaith. It was here that, headed by the priesthood, theattack on the Bābees commenced; many hundred wereslain in that province, fighting to the last, and sustainingwith invincible fortitude all the barbarous inflictions whichcruelty, fanaticism, and terror could invent. Scenesnearly similar, but with a diminution of cruelty andbigotry, were repeated in Fars and Yezd.

This year, seven Bābees were executed at Tehran foran alleged conspiracy against the life of the Prime Minister. Their fate excited general sympathy, for every oneknew that no criminal act had been committed, andsuspected the accusation to be a pretence. Besides thisBābeeism had spread in Tehran too. They died withthe utmost firmness. Previously to decapitation theyreceived an offer of pardon, on the condition of recitingthe Kelema; or creed, that Mahommed is the Prophetof God. It was rejected, and these visionaries died stedfast in their faith. The Persian minister was ignorantof the maxim that persecution was proselytism.

In Zenjan the insurrection, or the religious movement,as the Bābees termed it, broke out with violence. Thiscity is only two hundred miles from Tehran, midway toTabreez. At its head was a moolla of repute and renown, who, with his associates, retired into an angle ofthe city, which they strengthened as best they could. Forseveral months they defended themselves with unconquerable resolution against a large force in infantry andguns, sent against them from Tehran. It was their readiness to meet death that made the Bābees so formidableto their assailants. From street to street–from house tohouse–from cellar to cellar–they fought without flinching. All were killed at their posts, excepting a few whowere afterwards bayoneted by the troops in cold blood.

Few believe that by these sanguinary measures thedoctrines of Bāb will cease from propagation. There isa spirit of change abroad among the Persians, whichwill preserve his system from extinction; besides which,his doctrines are of an attractive nature to Persians.Though now subdued, and obliged to lurk concealed intowns, it is conjectured that the creed of Bāb, far fromdiminishing, is daily spreading; at the fitting time Bābwill come to life again. There will be either a resurrection, or else his successor will maintain that his death wasa falsehood invented by the Mussulmans. Wheneverthat day of desolation arrives, wading in blood will notbe a figure of speech in Persia.

CHAPTER XII.

Ruins of Rēi – Massacre of Russian mission – The camel artillery – Excursion to Verameen – Extraordinary ruin – Rages – The Salt Desert – Wild asses – Tame asses.

October 1st.–EVERY one has returned to town, ourseason is over, and Shemeran is desolate; not a singletent being visible excepting those of our own camp, whichwe break up to-morrow to resume our old abode. I feelthankful the summer is over. The Persian autumn isstill more delightful than the Spring, and fortunatelyautumn in general is prolonged to the middle of December. The air is so pure that the animal spirits arehighly exhilarated. Everything looks bright and cheerful in the dazzling atmosphere, through which objects areseen with distinctness at immense distances.

The rides and drives about Tehran are very limited.One of the most usual is to the ruins of the ancient cityof Rēi, four miles from town. Little now remains of thiscapital, which, judging from the extent of mounds, brokenwalls, and other evidences of former population, musthave been of great magnitude. Two towers still exist,which might have been minarets, with inscriptions onthem in Cufic, as I am told; also some portions of theancient rampart, which is of prodigious size, and variousfragments of the city wall. I hear it is a city of Mahommedan construction, having been transferred from amore ancient site thirty miles to the eastward, where thecity of Rages is supposed to have existed. There is, however, a curious image carved in a rock still in a state ofhigh preservation, which Mr. Morier considers to be a proofthat Rēi preceded Mahommedanism. The city was utterlydestroyed six hundred years ago by the Lieutenants ofChengeez Khan, nearly all the inhabitants having beenslain. The dreadful calamities in the shape of invasionto which Persia has been always exposed, must explainin some degree the want of population. The heat of Rēiis said to exceed that of Tehran, and the insalubrityof the climate may be imagined from the Persian tradition relative to it. Izraeel, the angel of death, happeningto pay a visit to Rēi in the exercise of his vocation, seeingthe devastation caused by the deadly atmosphere, tookfright, and fled in such haste that he forgot his slippers.Overlooking Rēi is the hill where the Gebrs exposetheir dead to birds of prey; and close to it is the town ofShah Abdul Azeem, famous for the pilgrimages made toit from Tehran to the shrine of some holy descendant ofMahommed of the above name, and for its affordingsanctuary to criminals. This town is in truth the representative of Rēi on whose ruins it stands, and with thehills overlooking the ruins, which are a spur from Elboorz,forms a striking object at the eastern extremity of theplain of Tehran.

November, 1850.–In driving to the gate for exerciseoutside the walls, I often pass a melancholy building, notfar from our house, in ruin and uninhabited. It was theresidence of the Russian Mission, which nearly thirtyyears ago was massacred in Tehran by a rising of thepeople. The Minister was M. Grubaëdoff, who came toTehran not long after the war was concluded. Hisdemeanour to the Shah was said to have been rude andoverbearing. A Georgian slave, deeply in the confidenceof Fetteh Ali Shah and of the chief ladies of his haram,claimed the protection of the Mission as a subject of theCzar, and was received by the Minister under his roof.On the same plea, several women in the haram of eitherthe Shah or of the principal nobleman in Persia, the AzofUddouleh, a near relation of his Majesty, were demandedand removed against their own consent to the RussianMission. Various other acts, reminding the Persiansof their being humbled to the dust, took place. Theindignation of the populace was aroused; perhaps itwas fostered by the monarch himself. In some accidentalbrawl a Persian was killed. His body was carried inprocession to one of the chief moollas, who issued a fetwā,a religious decree, that the Kafirs should be slain, andthat the people should march to the Jehād (war for thefaith). Next morning several thousand persons assembledin arms at the various mosques, and proceeded in solemnarray to the house of the unfortunate Russians. TheShah was terrified at the tumult which had been raised,and which he now wished to quell, but could not. Hewas told that his own life and throne were at issue if hedared to interfere. The attack proceeded. The Russians closed their gates and doors, but offered, it seems,no resistance. The people mounted on the flat roof ofthe house, into which they made openings, and fired onthe Russians below; they were all slain, thirty-six innumber, I am told, excepting one attaché, who gave some

Camel-Artillery. Page 185.

of the assailants a sum of gold to spare his life; theythrust him into a small room, and told the mob thatwomen were lying there concealed, on which they retired. The British Mission was then in Tabreez, but oneof their number was immediately despatched to Tehran,and brought this Russian gentleman in safety to that city.I am told his name was Malkhof, and that he is now inthe Foreign Office of St. Petersburg, and one of the mostesteemed composers of the famous Russian despatchesand circulars. Fortunately for Persia a war was thenimpending between Russia and Turkey, and the EmperorNicholas was satisfied with an apology delivered inPetersburg by a grandson of the Shah. Since the abovedisplay of popular anger the Russians have never ventured to live in the town; their residence has alwaysbeen in the Ark or Citadel, close to the Shah's palace andthe Prime Minister's house. Their former dwelling hasnever been inhabited since that event; it now serves as astable for the Shah's camel-artillery.

This is a very pretty-looking body of soldiers, and, toall appearance, equally formidable. They, however, bearthe character of being merely a pageant, and nearly useless for purposes of war in these days. Their number isupwards of a hundred, each animal having a soldier anda small piece of artillery on its back, which carries, Ibear, a ball half a pound in weight. When about tobe fired, the gun is placed on the ground, resting on aswivel, though I believe it can be used from its elevatedposition. They accompany the Shah on journeys and onoccasions of ceremony, to fire salutes. When precedingthe Shah in their red housings, with kettledrums beatingand clarionets sounding, their appearance is quite melodramatic.

December, 1850.–Persia has at least one recommendation: life is very free and easy; there is not much choiceof action, but, such as it is, it is free and uncontrolled.One goes and one comes; one is constantly on the move,without any particular why or wherefore, excepting thatit is in some way or other a matter of course. A Frenchgentleman in Tehran described it well when he said thatit was "une vie de pantoufle." It was for some suchreason that in the early part of this fine, bright, coldmonth we determined to make an excursion to Verameen, the granary of Tehran, thirty miles distant fromthe city.

The first day took us to Shah Abdul Azeem, wherethere is nothing to attract attention excepting the mosque.The Persians and the Spaniards seem to resemble eachother in this respect. Where nothing else is to be seen,one is tolerably certain of beholding a fine church ormosque. At night we rested, according to our oldpractice, in a village house. Next day we reached thetown of Verameen, where again we saw another finemosque, but in ruins. It was several hundred years old,as the inscription on it declared. These ancient mosquesare built in a manner to ensure duration, and theirbeauty consists in the taste and variety of tint of theenamelled tiles with which they are covered. The interior is decorated in the same manner, with the additionof innumerable inscriptions from the Koran, in bas-relief,of stucco or more valuable materials, as the case may be.Persian stucco lasts for ever. The dome of this mosqueoffered rather a curious spectacle; it was full of pigeons,which flew round and round, and seemed either unable todescend, or to be attracted by some mysterious power. Iwatched them a considerable time, but still their circularevolutions continued without any apparent motive, andperhaps the magnetic influence was only destroyed bynight and darkness.

Near Verameen a most remarkable antiquity stillsurvives the lapse of twenty centuries, that is, if what wehear be true. It consists of an immense rampart, twentyor thirty feet in height, and of proportional thickness, inclosing a space of about half a mile in length and nearlythe same in breadth. It is in the form of a square; therampart is continuous, and at short intervals is strengthened by bastions of prodigious size. The whole is constructed of unbaked bricks of large dimensions, and is ina state of extraordinary preservation. The traces of aditch of great size, though nearly filled up, are evident infront of the rampart. No buildings are found inside,where nothing is visible excepting a few mounds,–not asingle habitation or human being. The solitude of thisstriking vestige of antiquity adds to its solemnity. Itstood alone; Elboorz, distant only a few miles, gazingdown on its hoary walls, with Demawend, in its garmentof snow, to complete the scene. From no place have Ihad a finer view of this grand mountain, which seemed tolie exactly to the north. I am informed that these magnificent ruins represent Europa, a city built by Seleucus,which, if true, would make it upwards of two thousandyears old. On seeing the perfect state of the ruins, andthe materials of which they are composed, one feels hesitationin crediting so venerable an antiquity. Seleucuschose the spot well. The district of Verameen is renowned for its fertility, though not at this period for thesalubrity of its climate. The surrounding country iscovered with earthen mounds, denoting former edifices,which, if explored, might reveal objects worthy of theerudition and intellect of even Sir Henry Rawlinson.My husband sent a Persian, with 100l., to "dig" in theruins of Moorghāb, the site of the tomb of Cyrus; andthough I do not suspect the money to have been "eaten,"nothing came of the experiment. I wish he had madechoice of one of these great mounds in preference.

This district seems to have been the land of cities. Afew miles to the south-east, on the edge of the Keveer,or Great Salt Desert, are other remains of vast extent;they consist of mere mounds, not remarkable for theirsize. Here, it is said, was the veritable Rages,–theRages of Alexander, the Rages of Tobias, transformed,it would seem, successively first to Europa, then to Rēi,and lastly to its present humble representative, Tehran.The position, it is alleged, confirms the supposition ofthat great city being on this spot, which was the highroad between Nineveh and Balkh. I perceive, however,in the Catholic Bible, in the Book of Tobias, that therewere two cities called Rages, one being at Ekbatana; soI leave the question to the antiquaries.

It seems inconceivable that a large city could haveoccupied this desolate waste. Here we were in the GreatSalt Desert, extending for hundreds of miles to the southand east. It is not like the honest steppes of Russia,which by culture supply all the wants of man. Theshootoor-khar, or camel-thorn, a briar on which that animal delights to browse, is the only vegetable substancethat meets the eye, or that these deserts can produce.It would appear, however, that in ancient days Rages wasnot necessarily in the midst of desolation. The desert isof an encroaching spirit; when not resisted by populationand tillage, it makes steady advances, and would swallowup Verameen, as it certainly has to some extent already,if not repelled by human labour. Rages may thereforehave been in a land flowing with milk and honey.

Verameen abounds in eelyats, who in summer removetheir flocks from that sultry region to the foot of Demawend. In the last century, when the tribes were thestaple of a Persian army, this was a valuable consideration in the selection of a capital. When Agha Mahommed Khan chose so wretched a place as Tehran for theseat of his dynasty, no doubt he had in view that on theeast, south, and west the tribes could be easily summonedto his standard; while on the north, at the city of Asterabad, lay his own tribe of Kajjar. Politically Tehran isconsidered to be well situated. Midway between Azerbijan and Khorassan, not too far from Asterabad andResht on the Caspian, the Shah of Persia, who is supposed always to lead his armies, is ready, or oughtto be, to oppose any invader. He is, no doubt, too farfrom the south, but from this point he has not much tofear. Ispahan, situated in the centre of the kingdom,was the natural capital of Persia when Turks, Affghans,and Usbeks were her only enemies. Now, however, thatthe Muscovite "barbarian eye" is fixed on her best provinces, the Shah must approach nearer the post of danger,

The skirt of Verameen towards the desert is said to bestocked with the wild ass, which Persians recommend asan excellent kebab, in spite of his non-cloven foot and ofhis not chewing the cud. But the Mussulmans havegiven themselves more latitude in these matters than theBenee Israeel,–asses, camels, horses, porcupines, crayfish, locusts, do not come amiss to them. The desertArabs are even accused of not scrupling to make a mealof a lizard, when need be. At all events, they did so informer days, if we may judge by the following indignantverse of the last Persian king before the Arab conquest.Mahommed, having attained the zenith of his power,addressed a letter to Yezdejerd, sovereign of Persia, inwhich he invited him to submit, and gave him his choiceof the Book, the Sword, or the Tribute. Stung to thequick at this proffer from an unknown Arab, the greatking exclaimed–

Ze Sheer e Shootoor Khoorden ve Soosmār,
Arabrā bejāee reseedeh ast Kār,
Kih taj e Kyānee hoonend Arzoo,
Toofoo ber too āī cherkh gerdoon, toofoo.

Drinkers of camel's milk, eaters of lizards!
To this pass has it come with the Arab?
That he dares to aspire to the crown of the Kyanees!
I spit on thee, fickle fate! I spit on thee!"

Numerous as are the herds of the wild ass in Persia,particularly to the north of Meshed and in Kerman, theonly one I ever saw was a tame one, which used to wanderabout Shemeran and often came to our camp. He wasa beautiful creature, very large, but exceedingly fierceand vicious. If any one ventured to approach, he immediately got ready for battle, striking out with his forefoot with great force. There is a beautiful breed of assesin the province of Yezd, perfectly white, tall and stately;they bring large prices, sometimes 25l., being in requestamong merchants and moollas for their activity andsecure ambling pace. As the wild asses are numerous inthe deserts of Yezd, they perhaps are descended fromthis stock. It is, however, the "regimental" ass in Persiawhich excites our admiration and deep pity. He is small,strong, and indefatigable. I hear that in each regimentof Azerbijan there are several hundreds of these animals,who carry the soldiers' baggage, as well as a great manyof the soldiers themselves. I have seen a regimentmarching, with their asses trudging manfully along theroad, some of them well loaded with baggage, and two orthree muskets on each side, besides a soldier astride,almost on the tail, his feet touching the ground. He alsofulfils the part of ambulance, the sick soldiers beingmounted on these personifications of patience. Thepowers of endurance of these poor fellows–I mean theasses–are said to be inexhaustible. Many of them areknown to have marched from Tabreez to Herat, and,more wonderful still, to have marched back again.

We returned to Tehran, after having explored all therides round Verameen, a few days before Christmas, whichwe kept as much as possible in the English fashion.Holly there was none, so I decorated the rooms withivy and the few flowers left in the garden.

CHAPTER XIII.

New Year's Day – Wool! Wool! – Various kinds of derveeshes, and their ceremonies – Freedom of religious opinions – Custom of sending corpses to Kerbella – Disagreeable companions – Ali-Illāhism – Visit to the Shah's palace – Conjugal present – The Shah's sister – The deserted camel.

JANUARY, 1851.–This year opened very agreeably witha reminiscence of Europe, in the shape of tableaux vivans,given at the Russian Mission with great success byPrincess —. Only the Europeans of Tehran wereinvited and a few privileged Persians, who had been inEurope, and were therefore accustomed to our manners.They seemed enchanted with the groups, which were reallyarranged with much taste. Even trifles like these are ofuse in this country, for they tend gradually to effect achange in their exclusive and Asiatic modes of thinking.I cannot say the same of the waltz and polka, whichalthough few have seen, yet they all have heard of, andwhich fill them with astonishment at the ladies who join inthose dances.

January 15th.–"Pashm! pashm! Wool! wool!" Inpassing through the bazar, I had constantly remarked awild-looking young man, so wild as to seem almost insane.He was dressed in white, with a small conical red cloth capon his head, and a trident in his hand to mark his professionof derveesh. He was the son of a merchant, who, havingspent his substance in extravagance and dissipation, had"abandoned the world," and devoted himself to idlenessand derveeshism. His day was spent in roving throughthe bazar, exclaiming with a loud voice the above word,"Pashm! pashm!" which seemed to comprise the wholeextent of his vocabulary. In this compendium of moralethics, this philosopher tried to excite the liberality of thewealthy, and pronounced his opinion of the vanity of sublunary things–that all was "wool!" The little understanding he ever possessed seemed to be constantly underthe influence of chers, an extract from hemp, which raisesits partakers to ecstatic bliss while under its influence, and,like the opium-smoking of China, finally destroys all thefaculties of the mind and body. Another of these worthieshad adopted a very different appreciation of worldly wealth.His mode of attracting attention was to approach a passenger, and exclaim, "Hazār toomān; yek deenār kemterneh mee geeram" (A thousand tomans; I won't take afraction less). A third used to pace up and down thebazars, vociferating, the word "Aleeyan" (Oh Ali!)and nothing else. He was said to be successful inobtaining contributions. The character of these derveeshes is exceedingly low in general estimation, and yeta sort of reverence is attached to the profession. Underthe pretence of abandoning the vain cares of a fleetingworld, they devote their lives to idleness and the inebriation arising from chers, roving from city to city, by theorders of their moorshids, or spiritual chiefs, and levyingcontributions from the multitude. I have already described one mode of exaction at the Nowrooz. Another oftheir devices is to make use of the most fearful imprecationsand denunciations of evil on those who refuse to submitto their extortion. Persian women, and even the greaterpart of the men, are seldom able to resist the weight ofthese anathemas. It appears that nominally they all preserve their original Mahommedanism, but that they assumeto themselves such a degree of perfection as dispensesthem from the observance of its forms of prayer, fasting,&c. With this creed they combine ideas of soofeeism, ormysticism, on the nature of the First Cause, his attributes,his relations with man, with matter, creation, with evil,and with good, quite unintelligible to me, and I hear evento themselves. Aiming at sublimity, they lose themselvesin a bewilderment of words and ideas. Tehran is naturallya Kibleh of attraction to these successors of the sages ofGreece. The Persian meerza or secretary of the Mission,who has been in England, and who is my constant cicerone,tells me that in Tehran there are seven fraternities ofderveeshes, each of which has a different system withreference to the subjects above mentioned. Their namesare–Ajem, Khāksār, Niāmet-oollāhee, Zehabee, Jellālee, Kemberee, Dehree. Ajem and Khāksār originatedwith Hassen of Bassora, who lived in the reign of theCaliph Ali; Niāmet-oollāhee, which is the fraternity mostprevalent in Persia, was founded by Maaroof e Kerkhee,derbān, or porter, to Imām Reza, who lived in the reignof the Caliph Mamoon. Zehabee is derived from Owēs eKerrem (a town in Yemen), one of the early disciples ofMahommed. Jellālee springs from the pseudo-Imām,Jaafer Kezzāb (the Great Liar), who lived about 150 yearsafter Mahommed. Kemberee originated with Kember, ablack slave of Ali "Ameer il Moomeneen," the "Commander of the Faithful." Dehree is rather a system ofatheism than anything else, the name of whose founder, if ithad one, I forget. Whoever desires to enter a fraternitymust take some sheereenee (sweetmeats) to the chief, andsay to him, "Aï wallāh, ya Moorshid tālibam" (Yes, by theLord, O Moorshid, I am a seeker). The moorshid tells himto kiss his hand, and then those of the rest of the disciples,after which he gives the neophyte a certificate assuringhim a reception among the fraternity. Some of them begfor the moorshid, others travel. For the thousand andone names of God, the moorshid imposes on the novicea thousand duties for a thousand days. Among theNiāmet-oollāhees the novice must present the moorshid, inaddition to the sheereenee, with a coin called an abassee,on which are engraved the words "Lā illāh illallāh"(There is no God but God). The moorshid repeats tohim an ayah, or verse, of the Koran, to be recited daily.In performing every act, the mooreed, or disciple, mustmeditate on the moorshid. It is lawful for him to smokechers. Among the Zehabees it is the practice to mesmerise the novice, if it may be so called, by staring himout of countenance. They are divided into two classes,of which one abstains from forbidden things. These lastassemble on Monday nights, and, sitting in a circle, theyrepeat Zikrs–that is, Lā illāh illallāh–for hours; theythen rise and move round until they foam at the mouthand become half mad. The other class abstains fromnothing forbidden. Everything is lawful. They practiseneither Zikr nor Fikr (meditation on God), but they mustreflect constantly on their moorshid. The Jellālees haveneither prayer nor fasting. On entering the fraternity,the novice must buy food and feast the derveeshes, andthis they call the deegjoosh, or pot-boiling. After thefeast the moorshid puts a piece of copper of the size of acrown into the fire until it is red-hot, and then places it onthe wrist of the mooreed. Some among them have twelveof these brands on each arm. The moorshids send themooreeds once a year on begging excursions. TheKemberees seem to devote themselves to the praise of Ali,and of his wars, and of the valour of Kember. TheDehrees appear to recognize no divinity. Matter in theircreed is eternal, and whatever now exists has existed fromall eternity.

Notwithstanding that the government of Persia is a despotism, there is considerable latitude in the profession ofreligion in that country; for, however Jews and Christiansmay suffer from local oppression, neither the maxims ofreligion, nor of the common law, nor the wishes of thegovernment, sanction their ill-treatment. With the exception of an open profession of either of the above-namedreligions, a Persian Mahommedan may avow any opinionshe pleases. Atheism and pure deism are freely at hischoice in his own circle of society. He may revile andridicule with impunity in the above limits all systems ofreligion, including Mahommedanism, though of course hewould suffer castigation were he indiscreet enough toprofess his opinions in public. Atheism is said to be rare,but deism, it is supposed, is widely diffused among theupper classes of society. It is, however, suspected thatthis latitudinarianism seldom survives youth and health,and that with the approach of years or infirmity a returnto old opinions is generally found. A Persian gentlemanwho was very intimate with the members of the Mission,

Caravan of Pilgrims, with Corpses, going to Kerbella. Page 197.

was remarkable for the freedom with which he gave utterance to his infidel opinions. The simple existence of Godwas all he could persuade himself to admit. Being attacked by cholera, before his death he left an injunctionthat his body should be deposited in the holy ground ofKerbella. This is the ardent desire of every Persian,for whatever may have been his crimes, he then feelscertain of an advocate who will ensure his eternal rest.Should a journey to Kerbella exceed his means, or thedevotion of his relations, Meshed and Koom, the shrinesof descendants of Imām Hoossein, both of which citiesare in Persia, are the next chosen spots for interment.At the latter town a woman, Fatma, not however thedaughter of Mahommed of the same name, is the presiding saint. The consequence is that dead bodies are constantly travelling from one end to the other of Persia.

Not long after our arrival in Tehran, when riding outside the town, on the road to Hamadan, which leads toBagdad, we were interrupted and detained by a largecaravan proceeding to the former city. A number ofthe mules were laden with long narrow boxes attachedupright, one on each side of the mule. A most dreadful and almost unendurable smell proceeded from thecaravan. On inquiry I found that these boxes containedcorpses which had been collected from various towns fora length of time, and were now on their way to Kerbellafor interment. It is a revolting practice. The boxes arenailed in the most imperfect manner, admitting of thefree exit of the most dangerous exhalations.

One of the gentlemen attached to the Mission, travelling between Hamadan and Tehran, arrived late at nightat a village where he lay down to sleep on the sakoo ofa large stable, very much fatigued by a long day'sjourney. A sakoo is a raised platform at one extremityof the stable, on which travellers repose, while theiranimals feed around them. During the night he awokeexceedingly unwell, having passed a harassing time infever, tormented with frightful dreams. On striking alight an unpleasant cause of his illness was discovered.He found that while he slept a caravan had arrived witha cargo of corpses, some of which, emitting a horribleeffluvium, had been placed on the sakoo close to his head.A person of weaker nerves than this gentleman would havebeen scared on discovering who his neighbours were.

This unceasing transfer of dead bodies from Persia toKerbella and the neighbouring shrines of Cufa andMeshed e Ali, is a heavy drain on the revenue of Persia,and a source of profit to Turkey. The stream of pilgrims inthe same direction flows with equal strength, and Bagdadmay be said to exist by Persians alive and dead. It isalso a common practice to make dying bequests to theseshrines. Moreover there are pilgrimages to Mecca andMedina which draw money into Turkey, though to amuch less extent, the devotion for the tomb of Mahommed's grandson far exceeding that for the sepulchreof the Prophet himself. The Persian government hasoften attempted to stem this torrent of pilgrims by endeavouring to substitute Meshed and Koom as objects ofpopular veneration. But nothing has sufficed to quenchthe enthusiasm for the memory of martyrs whose sufferings are renewed yearly before the eyes of the people.Thousands still flow on of the living and the dead. Thedifficulties and often the dangers of the road seem to be asource of attraction to the pilgrims, perhaps because theyenhance the merit. Reckless Koords and Arabs aresometimes to be encountered, and always the extortionand reviling of the Turkish authorities and their subordinates.

A conspicuous instance of religious toleration in Persiais to be found in the existence, in large numbers, of thesect called Ali-Illāhee, which implies that Ali is God."The Lord protect us!" an orthodox Persian exclaims,on hearing this blasphemy asserted. These sectaries seemnot to differ from other Mahommedans, excepting inaffirming that Ali, the nephew and son-in-law of Mahommed, is an incarnation of the Deity. This belief appearsto be an exaggeration of Sheeahism, of which the foundation is an excessive devotion to Ali and his descendants. The votaries of this creed are very numerous, thoughchiefly, if not entirely, confined to the genuine Persiantribes of Lek descent, as contradistinguished from theKoords, who, though also reckoned as a Persian race, yetare not supposed to be of the same family as the Leks.I am ignorant whether, among the Koords, Ali-Illāhismprevails or not. Although these tenets are perfectly wellknown as existing to a large extent among these tribes, notthe slightest attempt is made to disturb their opinions.The Ali-Illāhees, on the other hand, do not openly proclaimtheir dissent from the prevailing religion of their countrymen. A member of the mission was acquainted with achief of a tribe the whole of which professed Ali-Illāhism.This khan frequently asserted that among many of his creedit was believed that Christ and Ali were the same person.He gave a list of thirty Lek tribes, with the relative numbers of Ali-Illāhees and orthodox Mussulmans; but I donot think the subject of sufficient general interest to givea detail of their names. Being all eelyats, and thereforemen of the sword, this may be one reason why they donot suffer persecution. The Sheeahs and Ali-Illāhees ofthe same tribe live in harmony and intermarry.

Freedom of speech in Persia is on an equality with freedom of religion. It is the Persian substitute for liberty ofthe press, and the safety-valve of popular indignation.Every one may say what he likes. If needy, disappointed,or oppressed, the sufferer may seek consolation in revilingthe Shah and his minister, and all their measures, to thecontentment of his heart. At least until very recently hecould do so; for during latter years more frequent intercourse with the Russian Mission has led to the introductionof some Russian ideas on the subject of liberty of speech.This has rather contributed to its curtailment in thecapital, though in the provinces it subsists in full force.Some months after our arrival in Tehran, the PrimeMinister established a newspaper; and, to ensure its diffusion in the capital and provinces, he made it obligatory onall employés of a certain rank to become subscribers. Heplaced the paper under the management of an Englishgentleman, whose duty it was to translate extracts fromEuropean newspapers suitable to Persian ideas. The"leaders" were often the composition of the Prime Minister himself, and were chiefly in praise of the Shah'sgovernment; but this practice is said not to be confinedto Persia. Censure on any subject was rigidly excluded,exactly as if the 'Petersburg Gazette' had been adoptedas a model. This Englishman enjoyed no sinecure;besides the above Gazette for the public, he had the superintendence of another newspaper, designed only for the eyeof the Shah and his minister. The latter journal containedall the European political intelligence deemed unsuitablefor the Persian public, besides details of gossip and scandallikely to give amusem*nt to the Shah. Such is the beginning of the free press to be established in Persia fivehundred years hence; for within any less period it is hopeless.7 The Prime Minister, Meerza Tekkee Khan, was aremarkable man in many respects. He had a keen desire toelevate Persia in the scale of nations, and to rescue herfrom what he considered the thraldom she endured fromher three more powerful neighbours. Having passed hislife in Persia, his views necessarily were often wrong orcontracted, though he tried to remedy the defects ofeducation and want of experience by conversation withEuropeans on the system of government in the Celtic andGermanic portion of the world. He failed from want ofinstruments to carry out his projects, and through pride,which led him to domineer not only over the entire bodyof courtiers, but over the Shah himself. This pride wasfounded solely on his own intellectual superiority to hiscountrymen. His origin was very humble; but in Persiaand other Mahommedan countries there is a large fund ofpersonal equality, and obscurity of descent is not an obstacle to advancement. His father was a cook of Tabreez,who gave his son a good education, and found the meansof placing him among the meerzas, or scribes, of Azerbijan. Here he rose to a high post, and, at the suggestionof Colonel S—, was nominated Commissioner in Turkeyfor the conclusion of a treaty between the two countries.Not long after his return, a new succession to the thronegave him an opportunity for the display of his capacity,and he rose to the office of Grand Vezeer, though he neverassumed any other title than that of Commander of theArmy. This was a whimsical distinction to confer on himself, the army having been at no time his profession. Notsatisfied with this amount of prosperity, he aspired to acloser alliance with the Shah by contracting marriage withhis Majesty's only full sister. This he effected, but it didnot add to his power, which was already unbounded, nordid it contribute to his safety. I shall have to recounthis tragical fate before the termination of these pages.

During the course of this month I paid my second andlast visit to the Shah's mother. Various circ*mstancesrender it undesirable to form an intimacy with the inmatesof any Persian anderoon. If it were only on account ofthe language they are said to be in the habit of usingin familiar intercourse among themselves, no Europeanwoman would find any enjoyment in their society. Onthis occasion ceremony was dispensed with. After partaking of tea and coffee in her own apartment, therefore,she and all her attendants accompanied me through avariety of courts to a fine garden, where we met the Shah,unattended and alone. He conversed very agreeablyfor some minutes, and then came with us to the newpart of the palace, of which he was very proud. Somerooms were decorated in the Persian fashion, having tworows of light pillars on each side, the pillars and ceilingsbeing covered with small pieces of looking-glass. Someother rooms were exact imitations of European drawing-rooms; they were papered, and hanging round the walls

Nasr ood-deen, the shah of Persia. Page 203.

were some very inferior coloured engravings. One roomwas fitted up as a library, having glass cases filled withmanuscripts, each manuscript in a handsome brocadedcover. Here we took leave of his Majesty and proceededto the jewel-room. I am not a judge of precious stones,so I cannot pronounce an opinion on the value of the gemsI there saw. Some of the diamonds and pearls seemed tome of an amazing size, but so badly set that they did notlook to advantage. From thence we went to the chinacloset, and there I really did feel covetous. Such magnificent jars and bowls! and apparently quite thrown awayand forgotten. On our return to the anderoon the Shah'smother made me observe that the walls of the court hadbeen recently painted in fresco. Various subjects wererepresented but she paused before the one she liked best.I suppose it reminded her of some of the scenes of heryouth: it was an encampment of eelyats in a green plain–goats and sheep were grazing; here and there womenwere to be seen, some cooking, some carrying water, andmilking. "Ali!" said she, "there is a happy life–thereis a charming picture." All the women joined with loudapprobation in these sentiments. "Yes," said they, "lifeunder a tent, with fine air and good water, and fresh lambkebabs, is the best of all things." She also showed me apicture of her late husband, Mahommed Shah. She shedtears before it, and struck her breast as a sign of grief.I believe she was much attached to him at one time, untilhis neglect alienated her affection. She sought to renderherself agreeable to him in a way which to Europeansseems extraordinary, but which is not uncommon in Persia.While living in Tabreez, when Mahommed Shah was onlyCrown Prince, she wrote a piteous letter to an Englishgentleman, begging him to lend her a sum of money,saying she wished to join her husband, who had gone on adistant expedition and left her without funds. This gentleman believed her story and lent her the money. She,however, perhaps taking Sarah for her model, bought withit a Circassian slave-girl, whom she sent as a present toher husband, instead of going herself!

A few days afterwards I went to see the Shah's half-sister, a beautiful girl of fifteen, who lived with her motherin an obscure part of the anderoon, neglected by the Shahand consequently by every one else. She was reallylovely; fair, with indescribable eyes, and a figure onlyequalled by some of the chef d'œuvres of Italian art. Thisis so rare among Persian women, that she was one of thefew persons I saw in that country with an approach to agood figure. She was dressed in the usual fashion oftrousers on trousers, the last pair being of such stiff brocade, that if put standing upright in the middle of theroom, there they would remain. Her hair was curled, notplaited, and she was literally covered with diamonds. Shewas quiet in her manners and seemed dejected. She wasmost anxious to hear about European customs. Whatseemed to surprise her most was, that we took the troubleto undress every night going to bed; and she asked me,was it true we put on a long white dress to pass the nightin? All Persian women are astonished at this custom, andare quite unable to account for it. They never undressat night; they untie their thin mattress from its silkencover, draw it out from its place against the wall, androll themselves up in the wadded quilt which forms theirblanket. The only time they change their clothes is whenthey go to the bath. If they go out to visit, they, of course,put on their best garments, and take them off at night;but generally they lie down just as they are, and even incold weather they wear their chadoor, or out-of-door veil,at night. This young princess afterwards sent me a pieceof silk, with a request that I would allow my maid tomake her a gown of it, as she wished to dress in the Feringhee fashion, to see how she looked. I felt great compassion for the poor young girl. I do not know what hasbecome of her; but I suppose she is married to some onevery inferior to herself in rank and position.

February 5th.–In taking a drive to-day outside thetown, we passed a poor camel seated on the ground, whogazed at us with the melancholy look so habitual to thatanimal. It seemed to me he looked more distressed thanusual, and on stopping the carriage to make inquiries, wefound he had good reason for sorrow. He had receivedan injury which had rendered him useless for fartherservice, and his master had cruelly left him to die ofhunger, the wretched creature being unable to rise andseek for food in the desert. This barbarous practice isgeneral among Persians. All old and worn-out animalsare discarded and driven out to find a subsistence as bestthey can: to destroy them would be regarded as inhumanity. Besides this there are some qualms lest at thegeneral resurrection the murdered animal should take theslayer by the collar, gereebānesh begeered, and claimsatisfaction. My husband used invariably to cause theold horses of the Mission to be shot, instead of following thecustom of the country of selling them as packhorses, or turning them adrift to starve on the roadside. This gained hima reputation at Tehran, though not of a desirable kind.The kedkhoda, a very old man, of our village at Goolahek,having committed some misdemeanor, he was threatenedwith punishment. "I dare say you will cause me to bepunished," said the kedkhoda; "are you not that VezeerMookhtar who causes all the old horses to be shot aftertheir faithful services: so why should not an old servantlike me be punished?" Persian servants often givethemselves a good deal of latitude of speech. A Persian gentleman complained that the previous night hiscook made him ridiculous before a party of friends atdinner. The cookery being bad, he had sent for the cookto vent his feelings in a scolding, and told him that hisdinner was like rotten dog's flesh. "Well, khan," saidthe cook, "if your mouth tastes of rotten dog, it is not thefault of my dishes." Every one laughed at the khan andapplauded the cook. But to return to the poor camel.We went to the nearest village, where we complained ofthe inhumanity of leaving the camel to starve, and toldthe inhabitants they ought to kill it. In a moment twentyof them sallied out with their knives and daggers andkilled the poor fellow, each returning with a piece of theflesh to cook for his dinner. Next day the owner came tothe house and demanded the price of the camel, whichhad been slain contrary to the law. Wishing to see howthe question would be decided, my husband told him tolodge his complaint with the moojtehed, and that he wouldabide by the decision of the law. Not long after a notearrived from the moojtehed, decreeing that as ColonelS— had acted on mere presumption, and moreover, asthe owner was justified in doing as he pleased with hisproperty, he was entitled to a tenth of the value, or tenshillings.

⁷ There are four or five lithographic printing presses in Tehran, wherethe Koran and the Persian classical productions are printed and sold atvery moderate prices.

CHAPTER XIV.

Toorkoman hostages – The banks of the Goorgan – Toorkoman horses – Easter – Chaldæan bishop – Mistaken ideas of seclusion among Persian women – Dosing of Persian doctors – Ashoorada – Successful foray of Toorkomans against the Russians – Journey to Ispahan – Dreadful heat – Kouderood – Persian beggar – The unlawful lamb – Persian pigs.

February.–AMONG the curiosities of Tehran, to me atleast, were the Toorkoman women whose husbands wereliving in the town as hostages from the tribe of Goklan.This branch of Toorkomans resides in the vicinity ofAsterabad, in the south-east angle of the Caspian. Unlikethe other Toorkomans who roam in freedom between theCaspian and the Oxus, the Goklans are, from the abovecirc*mstance of their close vicinity to Persia, more or lesssubject to the Shah. They are, on this account, compelled to furnish hostages, to the number of forty or fiftyfamilies; but this does not prevent them from carryingtheir foraging excursions into Persia whenever commotionin the latter country affords a likelihood of impunity. Didwe not know the Toorkomans to be one of the most detestable races among mankind, we should be disposed tocommiserate their transfer from the beautiful scenerynear the banks of the Goorgan, and the freedom of theiralaïchigs, or felt and wicker tents, to the shocking atmosphere of their habitations in Tehran, where they are neverallowed to pass the gates. However, there are periodicalreliefs, which enable them to return to their obas orencampments. Men and women are extremely disagreeable in appearance, and the women particularly so. Theirfaces are flat and broad, with high cheek-bones, the noseshort, wide, and flat, the eyes small, deep-set, and jet-black, the complexion a tawny yellow. As they belong tothe genuine Turkish race, one is astonished in comparingthem with the well-looking Osmanlis of Constantinople,whose forefathers no doubt resembled these marauders.But a little reflection soon explains the change. Intermarriage with Georgians and Circassians, Koords, Arabs,Albanians, Sclavonians, Greeks, and Armenians, has nodoubt modified the frightful Mongolian features of thegenuine Turk. These Toorkoman women wander throughthe streets with the utmost unconcern, wholly unveiled.Their dress is equally remarkable and unbecoming; itconsists of red narrow trousers, and a coarse red clothcoat or vest reaching below the knee, surmounted withyellow handkerchiefs on the head and neck. Thecharacter of the Toorkomans admits of as little praiseas their persons. That they should be avaricious, greedyof plunder, and ferocious, is the natural result of theirmode of life. But they are also reputed to be full oftreachery, and ready to sell their guest at the moment ofshowing him hospitality in their tents. These vicioustraits are not relieved by courage. A Toorkoman is amarauder, and nothing more; always ready to pillage,and always avoiding fighting as much as possible.They do, however, sometimes make a headlong charge.One of their chiefs said that on such occasions theycouch their lances, bend their heads below the horse'sneck, shut their eyes, and then–Ya Allāh! forward!These ādamferoosh, men-sellers, are the bane and thebliss of Persian pilgrims to Meshed. On the one hand,they seize and carry them off for sale in Khiva andBokhara; on the other, they help them to Paradise bythe merit of the dangers encountered in visiting the shrineof Imām Reza at Meshed. Can anything more dreadfulbe conceived than a body of these ferocious Toorkomansdashing down at the dawn of day on a helpless village, orstill more helpless caravan of pilgrims,–men, women, andchildren? The old and feeble are killed, the others arebound, and hastily carried off to the desert. They callthemselves Soonnee Mahommedans, and on that pretextmake it lawful to carry off Persian Sheeahs. Should anyof their captives happen to be Soonnees, like men of conscience, unwilling to break the law, the Toorkomans beatthem until they proclaim themselves Sheeahs. The goodness of their horses enables them to make forays ofimmense length. Formerly, when Persia was disturbedand divided, they used to make chepāwuls, or forays, ofseveral hundred miles; but in these days they do notventure on such distant excursions, where retreat mightbe difficult. It is said that, after being trained, thesehorses can travel a hundred miles a-day for severalconsecutive days. Their pace is described to be a longstraddling walk, approaching to a trot, which they maintain almost day and night. The rider's powers of bearingfatigue must be not far short of those of the animal.Captives in good circ*mstances can always ransom themselves. The sister of a gentleman of Afghanistan, apensioner of the British Government, coming from Meshedwith her family, was carried off by the Yamoot Toorkomans, midway between that city and Tehran. Herrelease cost 500 tomans, about 250l. Had she not beenransomed she would certainly have been sold in Khiva.I have frequently seen at the gate of the Mission very poor-looking men with long chains suspended from their necks.This was a signal that sons or daughters had been carriedoff by the Toorkomans, whose release they were endeavouring to purchase by collecting alms. The Goklansare a comparatively small tribe, of about ten thousand tentsor families, and live surrounded by enemies. On thenorth are the Yamoot Toorkomans, dwelling on the riversAtrek and Goorgan; on the east are the Tekkeh Toorkomans; and on the south is Persia. The two formertribes are very powerful, and both wage constant feudswith the Goklans; but the Toorkomans never sell oneanother. The Goklans are, however, a compact, unitedtribe, dwelling in a strong country, and maintain theirground well. These marauders sometimes carry theirboldness to such a length as to seize people close to theramparts of Asterabad–nay, even occasionally withinthe walls–and carry them off to the desert.

March.–Nowrooz and the other festivals passedexactly as the year before, and were therefore deprivedof any interest, from the absence of novelty. Ourown religious festival of Easter was approaching, and itwas time to think of that solemnity. One of the inconveniences of Tehran to a Catholic family was the want ofa clergyman of that church, whom we consequently wereobliged to send for from a distance. On one occasion, aFrench gentleman of the order of Lazarists had travelledfive hundred miles to Tehran at our earnest desire, andafter some time returned the same long journey toSalmas, in Azerbijan. At another time, a CatholicArmenian clergyman, who had been educated at Rome,came from Ispahan to oblige us; and on a third occasionwe were indebted to a bishop of the Chaldean Catholicsin Azerbijan, who came from Tabreez, four hundred miles,to render us spiritual assistance. The bishop was a manof strikingly imposing and dignified appearance; he hadformerly been Patriarch to the Chaldean Catholics inMoosul, from which place he had been transferred toAzerbijan. He too had been educated in Rome, andspoke Italian perfectly. To us, who had been alwaysaccustomed to bear Mass said in the Latin language, itwas strange to listen to the service in old Armenian,which not even the Armenian congregation who attendedat our chapel understood, and in ancient Kaldanee, orChaldæan. It will surprise some English people to hearthat Latin is not the universal language of Roman Catholics in their religious ceremonies; but any one who onTwelfth Day has been in the Church of the Propagandain Rome will have seen Mass celebrated in Coptic, ancientGreek, Syriac, Armenian, Chaldaic, and other old tongues,which, like Latin, have now ceased to be the colloquiallanguage of the people. This Chaldean Bishop did notseem to be filled with charitable sentiments towards hisbrethren of the Nestorian faith, particularly towards theclergy of that community. Being himself a man of education, he was at no loss for opportunities of ridiculingtheir ignorance, forgetful of their seclusion in the mountains of Koordistan, and of what he himself would havebeen had not his good fortune sent him to Rome. Inworldly wealth this successor of the Apostles was veryprimitive; one of his flock acted both as servant andclerk, and a small remuneration was a sufficient inducement for undertaking the long and fatiguing journey fromTabreez to Tehran. His revenue was entirely derivedfrom the voluntary contributions of his flock; and eventhis scanty source of subsistence had recently, owing tosome disagreements, ceased. The "voluntary system" iscertainly not a thriving one in the East, whether forArmenians or Chaldæans, Catholic or otherwise. I havenever seen a clergyman of these communities who did notseem to be in extreme poverty excepting at Tabreez,where the presence of wealthy Armenian merchantssecures for their priesthood a comfortable subsistence.There are very few Catholics in Tehran, and the greaterpart of these were Europeans. Our congregation seldomexceeded from ten to fifteen people. (E.)

April.–My residence here has thoroughly dissipatedmy English ideas of the seclusion and servitude inwhich Persian women are supposed to live. Bondage, toa certain extent, there may be, but seclusion has no existence. Daily experience strengthens an opinion I hadformed of the extent of the freedom in which they spendtheir lives, particularly whenever I pass the door of thephysician to the Mission. Jealousy, at all events, doesnot seem to disturb Persian life in the anderoon, or toform a part of the character of Persians. The doctor'sdoor and house are crowded with women, of all ages andof all ranks, from princesses downwards, who come to himto recount their ailments. It seems their applications for

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succour are often founded on most frivolous motives;gossip rather than physic being frequently their object.Sometimes, on the other hand, they seem to think all thediseases of Pandora's box are concentrated in their persons,when in reality they are perfectly well, but still insist onbeing "treated." A princess in the streets of Tehran isas little distinguishable as a peasant, which enables her toconsult her medical adviser without any recognition of herrank. The dreadful practice of the Persian doctors isquite enough to drive the fair dames of Tehran to anEnglish physician. I am told they give the most nauseating draughts, in immense quantities, to their patients two or three quarts at a time. Then they divide allmaladies into cold and hot, which are to be attacked bycorresponding opposite medicines. Thus a hot disease isto be combated by a cold remedy. The classifications ofthese last are somewhat fanciful. Pepper, I know, iscold, and ice, I think, is "hot." It can hardly beotherwise than hot, for it is applied to the stomach inlarge pieces during cholera. It must be admitted, inextenuation of the freedom allowed to themselves byPersian ladies in their medical visits, that a physician is aprivileged person in Persia. The anderoon seems open tohim. Husbands and brothers, in company with theirwives and sisters, used to sit in their anderoon with our"hakeem sahib," gossiping and chatting as gaily andfreely as they would do in Europe. It is a pity that thesecheerful Iranees are so far off; they would otherwisesoon become Feringhees. With all their alacrity toendure a life of roughness, or even hardship, they have avast aptitude for luxury and enjoyment; which may beregarded as the high road to civilization. Their wantsare increasing daily, and these wants must be suppliedfrom Europe.

May 1st.–To the great dismay of all the courtiers theShah has resolved to undertake a journey to Ispahan.The unpopularity of the movement is general and reasonable. The courtiers are expected to accompany hisMajesty without receiving any compensation for the heavyexpense they must inevitably undergo. The camp of aking of Persia on a journey resembles that of a largearmy. There are cavalry, infantry, artillery, bazars, andcamp-followers innumerable. Each of the courtiers hasa large retinue of servants, mules, led-horses, tents, &c.;and he lays in a store of tea, sugar, tobacco, spices, andother edibles, as if he were undertaking a voyage of discovery in some unknown region. This arises from thenomadic habits so prevalent throughout the nation. A tentfeels to them like a house and a home; and in a sauntering journey, like that of the Shah of Persia, they love totravel luxuriously.

We, too, prepared with regret to swell the pomp of theroyal camp. The daily increasing heat, and other circ*mstances, made me heartily desire to remain in Tehran;but the Russian Mission having resolved to accompany theShah, the English Mission could not show his Majesty lessrespect; and I thought it preferable to brave all the discomfort of the journey rather than remain in the solitudeof Tehran.

The Shah, intending to reach his destination by a circuitous route, had already taken his departure fromTehran, when intelligence arrived from Asterabad whichexcited alarm, amazement, and ridicule. In the islandof Ashoorada, at the south-east angle of the Caspian, theRussians have a naval establishment for their ships-of-war, when cruising in the above portion of that sea. Theyseldom have at this station less than two or three vesselsof their military navy, whose occupation is ostensibly confined to the coercion of the neighbouring Toorkomans.This coercion, it may be presumed, is exercised with nolight hand over these marauders. These ToorkomanVikingrs belong to the tribe of Yemoot, and, by means oftheir boats, commit depredations on the Persian coast,carrying off men, women, and children, with every otherdescription of booty. Not being permitted to maintain a navy on their own sea, the helpless Persians areforced to have recourse to Russia for protection. TheToorkomans, smarting under a control so foreign to theirhabits, and annoyed by the deprivation of their usual pillaging excursions, determined to have revenge. It was abold thing of these half-armed barbarians to think even ofcontending in their open boats with the steamers and soldiers of Russia; nevertheless they ventured, and in theexecution of their plan they showed a keen appreciationof the character and habits of the Russians. On Eastereve, or Easter night, when every Muscovite is supposed tobe engaged in libations of thanksgiving for release fromhis rigorous fast, they landed in a creek of the smallisland, and immediately made their onslaught on theRussians living on shore. No resistance was made–perhaps the advanced stage to which their festivities hadbeen carried admitted of none–so, at least, it was currently said at Tehran. Some Russians were killed andwounded, and ten or fifteen persons, men and women,were carried into slavery by the Toorkomans, who returnedwithout delay to the mainland. But the amazing andamusing part of the affair was the conduct of the war-steamer lying in the harbour. Not the least attempt wasmade to succour the beleaguered party on shore. Shegot up her steam and rushed about the harbour, firing herguns at everything and nothing. The Persians said thatshe, too, was evidently as drunk as the crew. Thishumiliating blow from a few half-armed barbarians hasmade the Russian Mission look very grave, dignified, andmenacing. The occurrence is alarming, too; for no onethinks it will remain long without a sequel, as these YemootToorkomans are nominally Persian subjects, or at leastclaimed as such. In their lively, bantering manner, thePersians protest that the whole transaction–attack,slaughter, and capture–was got up and instigated by theRussians themselves, as a prelude to further encroachments. But we must commence our journey to Ispahan,and leave Prince — to decide the matter with his"auguste maître."

Kouderood, May 21st.–We quitted Tehran on the11th, and have got over only half our most fatiguingjourney. On leaving the city the thermometer was at thevery endurable temperature of 75°; but the moment weentered the tents it rose to 95°, and daily increased. Thissudden change was overwhelming. I never suffered somuch; and every one seemed equally depressed. Ourmode of travelling, too, augmented greatly the discomfortand fatigue, but was absolutely necessary with referenceto the servants and horses. We started every morning atthree o'clock, and halted at about seven or eight, whenthe sun was overpowering, then recommenced our journeyat about four o'clock in the afternoon. It was impossible to sleep during the great heat of the day; andoften the nights were so hot that the only moment onecould repose was the cool hour when we were forcedto rise.

The person most to be pitied, however, was our unfortunate French cook. After mounting his horse at threein the morning, and reaching the tents at seven or eight,he began his operations for breakfast. Whether he everrested at all I do not know; but the first object I used tosee on arriving at our encampment for the night was poorDunkel, cooking dinner in the open air, with a few unburnt bricks for a kitchen-range. It certainly was "désolant," as he himself used to say. An Englishman wouldhave gone distracted under such circ*mstances; but theFrenchman was a philosopher.

Our road lay through the district of Savah, by a constant but imperceptible descent. The city of Savah issituated in a burning plain where the soil is impregnatedwith salt, and, like nearly everything in Persia, is in complete decay. We were now advancing into the centre ofthe great province of Irak. No part of Persia seems tobe without clans and septs; for here, too, and in the adjoining districts, several Toork tribes are resident. Awonderful race of conquerors were certainly the Turks.Half the world at one time or another seems to have fallenunder their dominion; and not only did they achieve, but,more difficult still, they often contrived to preserve theirconquests. Good sense and courage seem to have beenthe special qualities of the race. Even at this day it ispossible to distinguish between the Toork and Lek, orgenuine Persian tribes, by the countenance. The formeris almost invariably marked by gravity, and often by uncouthness. The Lek is wild, and frequently ferocious incountenance. He has a keen and hungry look about himthat reminds one of a tiger-cat.

The heat at last became so excessive, and I and othersfelt so exhausted in consequence, that we took refuge inthis village, or rather encamped near it, to recruit ourstrength in its more elevated position. This is the greatadvantage possessed by Persia over other hot countries.In few places is it out of one's power to ascend from a hot,burning plain to a delightful yeilāk, where one is revivedby comparatively cool breezes. We have now been herenearly a week, and are, I am sorry to say, to leave it in aday or two. Our tents are pitched close to a clear stream,near a grove of olives, and there are a few large treesovershadowing us. On a hill near us are the ruins ofsome old castle, which looks very picturesque. Theground is covered with wild flowers and aromatic herbs;and our olive grove is filled with nightingales. Francesand Crab spend their day paddling in the stream; and,altogether, I feel sure any change we make will be for theworse.

Sultanabad, May 25th.–We have left pleasant Kouderood, and have again descended to the same scorchingatmosphere as before. This town is placed as usual ina plain bounded by hills; but in this instance the plainwas fertile, covered with cornfields nearly ready for thesickle. The town looks more thriving than customary,owing, perhaps, to its containing several manufactories, orrather looms, for making silk.

I was a good deal struck by the conduct of a beggar,very old and decrepit, who approached our camp, loudlydemanding charity. I sent him some pence, which hesent back with an indignant message, that "Pool e seeāhnemee-geerem" (I am not in the habit of accepting black(copper) money). This was the more curious, as asilk-weaver, passing by the tents, in answer to our inquiry,said that his wages were threepence a-day. This sumappears surprisingly small, particularly as almost everyPersian is married; but the price of food is on a corresponding scale. I question if the extreme cheapness ofPersia be owing to a great redundancy of food, and suspect it may rather be attributable to a scarcity of money.Still food is abundant: bread is generally twopence for6 1/2 lbs.; mutton a shilling for 6 1/2 lbs.; beef fivepence for6 1/2 lbs.; but such beef, invariably an old cow, fit fornothing but to die! This brings to my mind a circ*mstance which gives an idea of the kind of animal consideredfit for food by Persians. Our butler, Mahommed Agha,came to me in great haste, and said, with much solemnity,"Khanum, your fattest lamb wants to make himselfunlawful, therefore I propose to kill him at once." Itappeared the poor lamb was very ill, and about to die,and that to make him lawful food his throat should becut. Persian phraseology is sometimes curious. One dayAgha Hassan, our head groom, came to me and said thatmy horse had become my sacrifice. He had been ill, andthis was his mode of announcing the catastrophe of hisdeath; the meaning being that my misfortunes had descendedon the head of my poor steed. The groom hadkept a pig in the stable with the horse, for the purpose ofrendering the same service to the latter, but he couldnot avert fate. This is a common practice in Persia; andit is interesting to watch the friendship which springs upbetween the pig and the horse.

These domesticated wild pigs are peculiar in their attachments. There was an English consul at Samsoonwho kept one of these animals, which used to accompanyhim out shooting, and, I believe, did all the duty of apointer. He was miserable apart from his master. Whenever the latter paid a visit to the Pasha or the Cazee, henaturally declined to allow his pig to accompany him.The pig, however, was certain to ferret him out, and present himself, equally regardless of the feelings of the truebelievers and of the confusion of the Consul. These inconvenient demonstrations of affection cost the poor pighis life. The ungrateful Consul put him to death. Beforefinishing with pigs, I must mention another anecdote relative to their wonderful power of scent. A member ofthe Mission was once chased two or three miles openmouthed by an immense half-starved pig over hedgesand ditches, walls and canals, and barely escaped withhis life. He had a piece of ham in his pocket, which thepig's potent olfactories had discovered. Every one knowsthat the flesh of this animal is forbidden to Mahommedans,and that, in general, it even excites their disgust. Yetthey sometimes overcome their antipathy. An Englishgentleman happening to receive a present of a wild boar,a prince of the blood royal insisted on dining with him,with the proviso that the dinner was to consist solely ofpig. Accordingly pig in all possible shapes appeared attable. There was roast pig and boiled pig, fried pig andgrilled pig, and pig's head and pig's feet, of each of whichhis royal highness and one of his brothers freely partook.8

These dissertations upon pigs have drawn us away fromthe fertile plain of Sultānabād. With all its salt andsand a large portion of the soil of Persia is clayey andgood, and requires water only and population to fertilisethe plains. The want of good government has dispersedthe population; the want of population has dissipated thewater, that is, ruined the kanāts; and the want of waterhas converted three-fourths of the country into barrenness.I begin to conceive that ancient Persia may have beenpeopled in a high degree.

⁸ There is no reason for concealing that the giver of this eccentricfeast was the former most excellent physician of the Mission, Dr.Charles Bell. Few men have enjoyed so distinguished a reputationfor medical knowledge in Persia as this gentleman, to which his abilitieswell entitled him.–J. S.

CHAPTER XV.

Plain of Gilpaëgan – Melon-fields – Various travellers in Looristan – The manners of the Loors – Derveesh Ali – Khousar – Ispahan – Former splendour and general decay – Shah Abbas's Hall of Audience – Persian frescos – Felicity of the pigeons – The Armenians of Julfa.

GILPAËGAN, May 27th.–To reach this city from Sultānabād we were, according to custom, forced to cross a highpass. One would be disposed to imagine that Persia,which is a succession of natural fortifications, would, of allcountries in the world, be best able to resist the progressof a foreign enemy. Yet few nations have suffered morefrom the aggressions of invaders than this. From alltime Assyrians, Scythians, Toorks, Greeks, Romans,Arabs, Turks, Afghans, and Russians have made it theirbattlefield.

Our only incident hitherto has been a deluge of rainduring two hours, which speedily filled the tent withwater a foot deep. I sat on the table as the only secureplace for some time; but I was conveyed from that disagreeable harbour of refuge luckily just before the ponderous tent fell bodily like a log. Gilpaëgan is an extensive and most fertile valley. Grain is so cheap in thispart of Persia as to have almost only a nominal value;and unfortunately there is no mode of exporting it unlessby mules, which is too expensive a process for a distantmarket. I often think what a different country this wouldbe if it were intersected by good roads, waggon-roadseven, instead of the mule-tracks which now form the communication from one city to another. A large portion ofthe revenue of Persia is paid in grain, which, consequently, in Central Persia is not a profitable arrangementfor the Government. I remember hearing in Tehranthat the Shah had paid his gholāms, or personal guards,by assignments on the grain revenue of Gilpaëgan, Melayer, Mehellāt, and other places in the centre of Irāk.His Majesty's paymaster-general estimated the grain atthe Tehran price; but when they arrived at the spotthey found themselves obliged to sell it at less than aquarter of the sum. The expenses of the double journeyleft only a pittance of their salary.

The town of Gilpaëgan was in a more than ordinarystate of decay. An impression was made on me of thisplace by a present of a camel-load–really an ass-load–of roses. They had no stalks, and were tied up in a largecloth. As soon as it was untied the sweet perfume filledthe whole tent, and attracted Frances, who sat down inthe midst of the fragrant heap, and would have made apretty picture with the roses scattered on her head andlap. I am told that in this part of Persia, and in Kermanshah, melon-fields are to be seen three or four milesin length, and a mile and a half in breadth. I reallybelieve there is no exaggeration in the statement.

On entering the valley of Gilpaëgan we had nobleviews of the glorious mountains of Looristan, the abode ofa genuine Persian race, the worst and most ferociousrobbers throughout the land; for the Toorkomans cannotbe considered denizens of Persia. Their poverty andtheir barbarism are equal, and their own clan-feuds interminable; otherwise it would be impossible for the morepeaceable population of the plains to live in their neighbourhood. The mountains were covered with snow, looking grand and solemn, and exciting a lively desire to penetrate their fastnesses. Forty-five years ago two Englishofficers, named Capts. Grant and Fotheringham, whowere sent by Sir John Malcolm to make investigation intothe state of Looristan, were both murdered by the tribeof Feilee. Other Europeans have travelled hastilythrough the territory of these tribes, whose forefathers,in all likelihood, partook in the expedition of Xerxes,and who themselves probably preserve the manners andstate of society of those days. But the distinguishedauthor of the 'Antiquities of Nineveh' has had the rarefortune of passing some time among these mountaineers,and it is to be hoped he will reveal the result of hisexperience.

Europeans have been, no doubt, deterred from penetrating the almost inaccessible haunts of these lawlessmountaineers, either by the danger, or by the want ofobjects of curiosity to compensate for the risk. Yet thereis an attraction in examining a state of society so unlikeour own, where there is little or no law, and where personal freedom is carried to the verge of dissolving thebonds of society. This is the state of civilisation in whichToorkomans and Loors exist. Every man is his own protector, and allows himself the fullest liberty of action,knowing at the same time the penalties of trenching onthe similar rights of his neighbour Toorkoman or Loor.A nearer examination generally dispels the visions onemay have formed of these supposed unsophisticated beings,passing their lives in the solitude of their mountains,engaged in the care of their flocks and herds. The unveiled display of intense avarice, of poverty, squalor,ferocity, idleness, and tyranny among the men, toil andslavery among the women, soon displays the naked reality,and disgust succeeds sympathy.

Mr. Riach, formerly physician to the Mission in Persia,made a journey through these mountains with a caravanmany years ago. The journey from Kermanshah toDesfool occupied eleven days. The population along theroad was nearly all residing in tents, and had every appearance of the greatest poverty, which prevents themfrom procuring arms, otherwise the country would beimpassable. Clubs and stones are their weapons. Thetravellers never ventured to undress to go to bed on thismarch, so imminent was the danger of an attack of theLoors. The state of society was such, that old clothes,needles, pepper, and salt were better than money for procuring necessaries. He describes the Loors to be "handsome, strapping, ferocious-looking fellows, and far fromcivil."

It is strange that in these savage regions Mr. Riachshould have found the ruins of the "finest bridge he hadseen in Asia." The two extremities rested on rocks threehundred feet apart, and thirty or forty feet above thelevel of the stream. The few arches remaining weresupported by pillars of great size, and the span of one ofthem was not less than sixty or eighty feet, and eighty orninety feet in height, the whole formed of hewn stone.Who can have built this?

More than twenty years ago another Englishman livedamong these tribes. He assumed the character of aMussulman and derveesh, and called himself by thename of Derveesh Ali. So well did he personate thecharacter that on one occasion he appeared at Tabreezbefore several English gentlemen, and exclaimed "Hoo,Hak!" with such emphasis and discretion, that until headdressed them in English his disguise was not detected. Inhis peregrinations through Looristan he had taken a Loorwife, whom he afterwards found it convenient to exchangefor a donkey. Derveesh Ali was a very eccentric person,and passed many years of his life in wandering over theEast in the above disguise.

I have seen extracts from a journal of Derveesh Ali,from which the following passage will illustrate the stateof society in Looristan:–

"In Looristan proper there are no houses. Half theyear the people live in the higher mountains in arboursformed of twigs and bushes, the other half is spent intents below the mountains in the germseer, or hot region,during winter; six months of the year they live on acorn-bread, steeped in mud to remove the acrid taste. Saw agirl, sixteen years old, reaping corn in a field, in thedress of Eve before the Fall. Gum arabic, gum mastic,and gum tragacanth abound in these mountains; alsosulphur and bitumen. The lower range of mountainstowards Desfool is covered with large oak-trees, fit forship-building, which might be floated down the Kerkha,and thence through the marshes to the Tigris at Shat-el-Had."

Colonel Rawlinson, Colonel Williams, and Baron Bodeof the Russian Legation in Persia, are, it is said, theonly other Europeans who have visited these mountains.

Khonsar, May 30th.–From the hot valley of Gilpaægan we were delighted to reach this cool spot. Thetown of Khonsar lies chiefly at the bottom of a deepravine, and therefore does not partake of the cool breezeswe enjoy, for we took care to pitch our tents on the highland. Judging by the climate we found, I conjecturethe cold must be exceedingly rigorous in winter, on whichaccount, perhaps, the ravine was selected as the site ofthe city. The town is of great length, and is pretty.The valley is narrow, full of fruit and other trees, which,to the exclusion of tillage, seem to occupy all the careof the inhabitants; it is closed on both sides by very highmountains.

Ispahan, June 15th.–We were four days reaching thisrenowned city from Khousar. For miles before approaching its walls the country was covered with cornfields, melon and cucumber fields, vineyards, and orchardsof all the fruit-trees produced in Persia. Whoeverwants to know what Ispahan was two hundred and fiftyyears ago can consult Chardin, who says it contained sixhundred thousand inhabitants, and was twenty-four milesin circumference. Now the population is supposed to beunder one hundred thousand–an estimate to which itsuntenanted and deserted streets give credibility. Its capture one hundred and thirty years ago by the Afghans,who committed great ravages, commenced its downfall,which was completed by the transfer of the seat of themonarchy to Sheeraz and afterwards to Tehran. TheIspahanees bear the reputation of being the most intelligent and industrious, as well as the most effeminate andtimid, among the inhabitants of Persia. The inconceivable subjugation of their city when it held five hundred thousand souls by a body of twenty thousand Afghans, is a confirmation of the latter portion of thischaracter.9 Still enough remains of fine bridges, mosques,beautiful avenues of plane-trees, and crumbling palaces,to attest its former greatness. It enjoys the inestimableand in Persia the rare advantage of being situated onthe banks of a fine river, which covers its immense plainswith abundance and fertility. Its desolation and lonely,silent streets, make a deeper impression than even themouldering ruins of its departed grandeur. We passthrough stately bazars of immense length utterly tenantless; not a human being in them: yet even now Ispahancontinues to be a place of considerable trade and manufacture, and contains many wealthy merchants–all thegreat roads of Persia from every quarter concentrating atthis spot. Its silks, velvets, brocades, satins, chintzes,arms, and lacker-work, bear a high reputation. Theclimate has a character superior to its merits, the heatbeing very great and the odours overwhelming.

September.–It would be superfluous to describe thecuriosities of Ispahan in palaces, gardens, and so forth,when they have been already so ably depicted by suchwriters as Morier, Porter, and Fraser. Besides this, theprodigious heat and exhaustion arising from a residencein a house nearly open, with an aspect only to the south,had fairly worn me out during our abode of nearly threemonths, and prevented me from undertaking extensiveresearches. Add to this the circ*mstance of her Majesty's subjects having received an increase a month aftermy arrival,. and my lack of enterprise will appear excusable; still I cannot forbear from recalling to remembrance the splendid maïdan, or square, of Shah Abbas,and the equally splendid mosque at one extremity of themaïdan, to the gate only of which we were allowed topenetrate. The inspection of some of the palaces of thatmonarch, who appears to have built all the palaces, andcaravanseras, and everything else of note in Persia, gaveus great pleasure, and I am happy to say that someattempt is now made to rescue and to preserve them fromruin. The building which made most impression on meis the large hall of audience called Chehel Sitoon, orforty columns. Besides an unbounded supply of looking-glass, gilding, and paintings on the walls and ceiling,this hall contains several frescoes representing Persianroyal life two or three hundred years ago. The coloursare vivid, and the execution by no means despicable. Icaused some of them to be copied on a reduced scale,which I preserve as souvenirs of Ispahan. In one of thesepaintings Shah Tamasp, who reigned three hundred yearsago, is represented entertaining his refugee guest fromIndia, Hoomāyoon Shah; the courtiers are seated around,dancing-girls are performing, and wine and drinking cupsare not wanting. In another, forty years later, we see ShahAbbas himself seated with the Turkish ambassador,evidently at a drinking-party. The Turkish and Persian courtiers are seated on each side, whereas thepresent etiquette inflexibly requires them to standwith folded arms. The attendants are looking onfrom behind, and dancing-girls occupy the foreground.It is evident that the debauch has made considerableprogress. In one corner we see a man prostrate,very drunk, holding the wineflask to his mouth; whileanother of the carousers, in a shocking state of intoxication, is borne away in the arms of the attendants.But we do not see the brave Sir Anthony and Sir RobertShirley, who often partook of the orgies of this monarch.These were two Englishmen who entered the service ofthe Shah, and who, by their ability and military qualities,raised themselves to high favour. I have been told thatthese two gentlemen were among the first, if not the first,Englishmen who entered the Persian service. Hanwaysays that in those days the English residing in Ispahanwere numerous, and lived with a magnificence amountingto extravagance. In the present day it would be difficultfor a numerous party of Englishmen to find subsistencein Ispahan, much less live there in splendour. TheSuffavee dynasty of monarchs seem nearly all to have beendevoted to wine, and to have indulged in this propensitywithout scruple, careless of the opinions of their subjects.Perhaps their subjects partook with more freedom, or atleast more openly, than at present of these forbidden enjoyments. From these paintings and from the memoirsof Sultan Baber, the founder of the Moghul dynasty inIndia, and a devout worshipper of the wineflask, we areable to judge of the habits of Asiatic royalty in those days.

Persia is decidedly the country for men of good luck,enterprise, and intrigue to choose for a career. Obscurityof birth, as before said, is no bar to advancement, nordoes it prevent the "right man from being in the rightplace." In this point, at least, Persia has a superiorityover England. The late Prime Minister was a schoolmaster; I have already mentioned Meerza Tekkee Khan'sdescent; the Governor of Ispahan was once the latter'smenial servant, and a previous Governor was the son ofa small greengrocer in the same city. This last was aman of great capacity, who raised Ispahan to a high stateof prosperity; and the present Governor, if not possessedof the same rare abilities, is a man of moderation andfirmness, who rules the people with equity, and pays theShah his share of the revenue without undue peculation.Ispahan is beginning to recover from the deep ruin intowhich it had fallen. Its remaining edifices, as I said before, are protected, its commerce is improving, and the merchants are becoming wealthy. A continuance of the present moderate system of government, aided by the wonderful fertility of the soil, will ere long restore to thisancient city a share of the prosperity it once enjoyed.The late and the reigning Shah have often formedschemes for establishing their capital here, but reasons ofstate have hitherto prevented this desirable change frombeing carried into execution.

Ispahan is the land of promise for pigeons; theyswarm like locusts, and not only are never eaten, butare highly cherished and thrive accordingly. Theirresidences, high, malakhoff-looking towers, painted white,dot the whole country, and these buildings are evidentlyobjects of great care–much more so than any otheredifices.

We resided in the quarter of the Armenians, which isseparated by the Zayenderood from the Mahommedancity. It has received the name of Julfa, in memory ofthe town near Nakhshewan, from which these Christianswere forcibly conducted by Shah Abbas. Their numberwas then estimated at twelve thousand families, whichare supposed to be now reduced to six or eight hundred.Notwithstanding their thrift, the Armenians have participated in the general decay of Ispahan. They have beenreduced to great poverty: one sees the streets crowdedwith young men, sauntering, or seated at their doors,without any employment, They go to India in greatnumbers, where they are distinguished for their habits ofindustry. After a few years' exile they return with acompetence to their native land to spend the remainder oftheir days.

Their spiritual chief is a bishop, nominated by thepatriarch at Etchmiatzin, near Erivan, consequently aRussian subject, like his colleague at Tabreez. ThisBishop of Julfa visited us more than once during ourstay in Ispahan. His appearance and manners werehighly dignified and agreeable, and he was evidently aman of education–very different from the unfortunateArmenian clergy of Persia. We heard that he was indespair at the ignorance and clownishness of his clergyand flock, not one of whom did he find to be a suitableassociate. He consequently lived in solitude. We heardalso that the worthy Bishop condemned himself rigorouslyto abstain from wine, lest his life of solitude should seducehim to the habits of inebriation to which his co-religionistsare often addicted. At his breast he wore a beautifulcross of diamonds and emeralds, and by its side a decoration of the same materials surmounted by the double-headed eagle, showing clearly whose subject he was.

The conventual system exists among the "orthodox"Armenians, as they designate themselves. At Ispahanthere is a convent containing six or eight old and exceedingly ugly ladies, who used occasionally to visit me.They were evidently extremely poor; their residence wasinconveniently close to us, as I used every night to beartheir loud summons to matins by knocking a mallet on apiece of wood.

We also found here a small community of CatholicArmenians, presided over by a venerable gentlemancalled Padre Giovanni, who, originally from Angora, hadbeen educated at Rome, and had afterwards devoted alarge share of his life to the care of his humble flock atIspahan, where, soon after our departure, he died.

It happened that, attending Mass on one occasion athis church, service was performed in old Armenian by aCatholic Armenian clergyman. To our surprise, and tothe consternation of our Irish servants, we found thatpart of the congregation consisted of the wife and threedaughters of the officiating clergyman. They wereignorant, and we had forgotten, that the discipline ofcelibacy among the priesthood is not applicable to thesecular clergy of the Eastern churches of the Catholicfaith. I hear, however, that marriage is allowable onlybefore ordination.

In former days the Jesuits and various other ordershad each their establishments at Ispahan, and I believethat at this moment there is ground in that city claimedas belonging to the French Government, in virtue of someimmunities conferred two or three hundred years ago onFrench ecclesiastics. Padre Giovanni and his small flockwere then the representatives of all these establishments,the names of whose occupants crowd the enormous cemetery to the south of Julfa.

There is great similarity between the two Armenianchurches, "orthodox" and Catholic. I do not knowwhether this title "orthodox" is one assumed by themselves or conferred by Protestant American writers. Ibelieve it is the latter. The ceremonial in regard tothe use of vestments, incense, candles, veneration for pictures, but not images, representing sacred subjects, holywater, the sign of the cross, and similar minor observances, is much alike in both creeds. In doctrine thegreat difference seems to be the disavowal of the spiritualauthority of the Pope by the Armenians, their rejectionof certain general councils, and a disagreement fromCatholics, as well as Protestants, in the procession of theHoly Ghost. They also acknowledge only one naturein Christ, and anathematize all who dissent from thisdoctrine. It is on this account that they are consideredas schismatics in the Church of Rome, Transubstantiation, baptism, confession, and the remainder of the sevensacraments, are alike in the two churches. Purgatory isnominally rejected; still masses, prayers, and alms areoffered for the dead. They communicate in two kinds,–by dipping the bread in the wine. As in the Catholic Church, the bond of matrimony can be annulledonly by death; they also admit the efficacy of goodworks.

The fasts are most numerous, far surpassing in numberand rigour those of the Roman Catholic faith: theyexceed one hundred and fifty days in the year; meat andfish of every kind, with eggs, milk, butter, cheese, areexcluded from consumption on these days. It is said,moreover, that the Armenians are rigid in the observanceof this ordinance.

The practice of covering the mouth, even in theirhouses, seems to prevail among Armenian women everywhere. They live, especially the married women, in astate of seclusion much more severe than that imposed onPersian females. A woman, for years after her marriage,is not allowed to see her nearest male relations. Shelives in complete silence for a long time, and conceals herface from even her husband's father and mother. Theyare, in fact, menial servants; their ignorance is extreme,it not being considered prudent to give them any education. Though much fairer than Persian women, theirappearance is exceedingly coarse; their countenanceoften possesses a wonderfully crimson hue, not, however,of an agreeable tinge, as it reminds one too strongly ofthe source from which, if fame does not slander them, itis often derived. They have the reputation of indulgingsometimes in the deep potations to which the Armenianmen are habitually addicted.

I have been told that there is a striking uniformity inthe character of Armenians in all parts of the world–atleast in the East–Persia, Turkey, Russia, and India. Itpossesses some qualities calculated to attract regard, andthe inflexible tenacity with which the Armenian has clungto his faith during centuries of persecution claims respect.He is a model of frugality and self-denial, excepting, itmust be avowed, when he encounters the temptation ofthe wine-skin. With little to boast of in point of honesty,he nevertheless exceeds the other natives of the countrieswhere he resides in these virtues. A most keen andindefatigable trader, Tartary and China are the limits ofhis commercial enterprise in the East. His hatred tothe profession of arms is extreme. It may be doubtedif the recent concession in Turkey of the abolition ofthe kharāj, or poll-tax, will be a boon to this real "peaceparty" in the East, In Persia, I am satisfied, the Armenian would rather pay a double poll-tax than be asoldier. Oppression has made him timid and cringing,yet, with all his defects, the Armenian is certainly animprovable person, willing to adapt himself to the progress of civilization.

It is remarkable that in the vicinity of Ispahan there isa district called Feraidoon, inhabited by Armenians, whoform a complete exception to the above remarks. Theyare courageous, warlike, and always ready to appeal toarms in their unceasing feuds with their neighbours theBakhtiarees.

The uniformity observable in their characters existsalso in their features. Their faces are large and full,with prominent hooked noses, rendering them extremelylike the sons of Israel in countries where the fine countenances of the latter are not deformed by oppression.The appearance of the women has been described in aprevious page.

The industrious habits of the Armenians make themvaluable as Rayas or Ryots in Turkey and Persia. Inboth countries, particularly in Turkey, a Mahommedanlandlord much prefers that his tenants should be composed of Armenians rather than Mussulmans. As faras my husband's observation extends, the treatment ofArmenians and other Christians in Turkey is more justand moderate than in Persia. This remark does not, ofcourse, extend to the Turkish Koords, whose treatmentof the Nestorian Christians is infamous. It is not that aPersian is less tolerant than a Turk; on the contrary, inmany respects he is more so; but he is more covetousand grasping, more profuse and extravagant, and the lawis weaker in Persia than in Turkey.

Russia, too, seems to place an equal value on an Armenian population. In her last wars with Persia andTurkey, she inveigled many thousand families of thisrace from Tabreez, Erzeroom, and the adjacent districtsinto Georgia.

⁹ The palm of timidity is disputed by the Kashees, or natives ofKashan. A body of soldiers from this city, being permitted to returnfrom Tehran to their homes, made a petition to the Shah that a fewof his ghoolams, or personal guards, should be ordered to see them insafety through a dangerous defile near Tehran. This is a popularanecdote illustrative of their reputation.

CHAPTER XVI.

Mussulman nurses – Three various modes of counting time in Persia – Retribution for the Russian festivities on Easter Sunday at Ashoorada – Partial abolition of the importation of slaves – Negroes in Persia – Condition of slaves in Persia – Return to Tehran – Bastinado – Punishment of a general for being defeated.

OUR residence at Ispahan afforded an instance of thegeneral diminution of religious prejudice among theMussulmans, even in places where, like that city, therewere no Europeans resident from whose opinions theymight take example. I had been recommended not toengage a nurse from among the Armenian women, who,owing to the food they are forced to have recourse to inconsequence of their rigid fasts, or from some other cause,are considered unhealthy. I therefore sought one amongthe Mussulman women. No sooner were my wants known than a number of applicants appeared. Someyears ago a sort of compulsion would have been necessaryto induce a Mahommedan woman to undertake the office.They came to our door accompanied by their husbands,and then entered alone. They seemed perfectly indifferent at their faces being seen by Englishmen. Someamong them were not poor, their object seeming to be tosecure a protector or patron. The fact of quitting theirfamily and home to accompany strangers like us to Tehranwas no impediment, although they were to be perfectlyalone; but the reputation of the English for probity andthe faithful performance of engagements stands high inPersia. Even when the certificate of the term and natureof service was sent to a cazee for registry, not the leastopposition was made. The young woman whom I hiredwas very poor, and full of anxiety to obtain the situation.Seeing another candidate make her appearance, she became very much excited, and protested, with the usualPersian oaths, that if she were deprived of her office ofnurse to the little vezeer mookhtar, as she styled the child,she would instantly fall upon her rival and chastise herseverely.

She accompanied us to Tehran. I have had a gooddeal of experience of Persian nurses and their children,for they always insist on having one of their elder childrenwith them. "Khanum," they used to say, "I cannot livewithout Khatoon (or whatever the child's name was); sheis the light of my eyes." Notwithstanding this apparentaffection, if their children were troublesome they wouldrush at them and pinch them until they were black. Oneday I heard a great commotion in the anderoon, and ongoing in some alarm to see what the matter was, I foundthat these women were discontented with their pillao andwere threatening to beat the ferash who brought it to them.When they are in a passion they tear their hair andscratch their bosom with their nails until the blood comes.It was curious that, young as my daughter Frances was,when she tried to signify her indignation at anything shewished for being withheld, she used to imitate exactlywhat she saw the nurses do, and put up her hands totear her hair, and sometimes knock her head against thewall. These women were very exact in their devotions;at daybreak they would rise, perform the prescribed ablutions, and unwrapping a stone that had been brought from Kerbella, placing it carefully towards Mecca, they wentthrough the usual form of prostration and prayer; thisthey repeated three times every day. To amuse themselves during the day, one would sometimes beat thetambourine and the other dance. They could hardly sewtheir own clothes; indeed, the greater part of their timewas spent in sleeping, which is a mode many womenadopt of arriving at the degree of embonpoint thoughtbecoming. They used to go once a week to the bath,and come home painted, and their hands and feet as wellas their hair dyed. I think they felt a secret contemptfor me in consequence of my doing a good deal of needlework, which they thought an undignified proceeding onmy part. One of them accompanied me as far as Constantinople on my way home, and would, I think, if I hadwished, have come on to England.

The Shah did not arrive in Ispahan until two weeksafter we reached it. He delayed here and there on theroad to beguile some of that time which Persians find tohang so heavily on their hands. Time is of no value inPersia, from which reason it must be that so complicateda system has been maintained as that of counting bysolar time, lunar time, and the Toork cycle. The firstis observed by astronomers, and was in general use inPersia until it was superseded by Mahommed's lunaryear. It consists of twelve months of thirty days each,with the required number of intercalary days. Thesecond, which is now in general use, consisting of threehundred and fifty-four days, is therefore perpetuallychanging: an event commemorated in one year will comeround ten days earlier the succeeding year. The third is acurious method of counting introduced by the Toorks intoPersia, but which I am told has been forgotten in Turkey.They divide time into cycles of twelve years, each yearhaving a separate name, but they have no designation forthe cycles. Thus, if they wanted to describe an eventwhich happened sixty-five years ago, they could onlymention the name of the fifth year. These years are solar,and are thus designated:–

It seems strange their number should be twelve, as ifthere were a zodiac of years instead of months.

This method of marking time is preserved only in government documents, such as firmans, grants, &c. Noone seems able to account for its origin, excepting thataccording to tradition, the Toorks of old brought it fromTartary.

To return, however, to the Shah,–he arrived full soonenough to swallow a very bitter pill. The day of retribution for the Toorkoman attack on Ashoorada hadarrived.

Some of the attachés of the English Mission, in ridingthrough the streets, met the whole of the Russian Mission, excepting the Minister, proceeding to the PrimeMinister's house, in the unusual display of full uniform.Their countenances betrayed the solemn importance oftheir intent. The Russians love effect and theatrical representation at least as much as the French. Thesegentlemen had gone in a body to claim satisfaction for thesuccess of the Toorkomans, and for the imbecility of theRussian commander: that satisfaction was the dismissal ofthe Prince Governor of Mazenderan, as the instigator of theoutrage. The Shah's brother was to be the scapegoat ofthe Russian commander; the penalty of refusal was theimmediate departure of the Russian Mission from Persia.

All the court, all Ispahan, exclaimed against the iniquityof this demand. The prince, they said, was governor ofMazenderan, not of Asterabad, besides which, he hadevery motive to conciliate, not to irritate, the Russians; theharsh conduct of the Russians was in itself, it was added asufficient provocation to the Toorkomans; at all events letthere be an investigation, and let punishment follow proof,not assumption. All was useless. The man was verysick indeed, and must submit to the prescription of hisphysician. In fine, when a weak, remote, unfriendednation, like Persia, has the misfortune to be neighbourto a powerful one like Russia, where one man's will issupreme and irresponsible, it must often be content tobow down in humiliation before pride, policy, and caprice.It must bend to avoid being broken. The prince was recalled, and the universal conviction of the injustice of theblow made it more deeply felt.

No evil is without alloy, and so it may be said of the recall of the Prince Governor of Mazenderan. For a long timevarious attempts had been made to induce the Shah's government to put a stop to the importation of negro slavesfrom Africa by the Persian Gulf. They are conveyed inPersian and Arab vessels to the Persian ports. The authority of the government over its subjects on the coast ofthat sea is very imperfect, and in fact merely nominal.Consequently the only efficacious mode of stopping thetraffic, is by allowing the right of search, and the removalof the slaves to English ships of war. But this concessionhad been strenuously resisted. A week after the forcedrecall of the governor of Mazenderan, this boon wasgranted for a certain number of years. Thanks be to theRussian government, to whom the negroes of Zanjibarought to be grateful.

There are three kinds of negro slaves in Persia, whoare named Bambassees, Nubees, and Habeshees. Theformer come from Zanjibar, and the neighbouring countryin the interior, but I do not know the derivation of thename. The others, as their names imply, are natives ofNubia and Abyssinia. The Bambassees, who are genuinenegroes, are in great disrepute as being ferocious, treacherous, and lazy. The Nubees and Habeshees, exceptingin being black, do not present the usual negro characteristics. They are highly esteemed as being mild, faithful,brave and intelligent, and are generally confidential servants in Persian households. Ill-treatment must of coursesometimes take place when there is unlimited power onone hand, and entire submission on the other. The factis proved by the occasional instances in which slaves havetaken refuge in the Mission to escape from punishment bytheir masters. Still it is believed that in general, cruelty,or even harshness, is rarely practised towards slaves inPersia. Their customary treatment is similar to that ofthe other servants of a family, or even something better,particularly when they happen to be Nubees or Habeshees.They are never employed as field labourers, their occupations being confined to the duties of the household. It is probable that in the anderoons more suffering is inflicted onthe women slaves than is endured by the men. Capriceand idleness are unsafe guardians for human beings of aninferior race, when there is no "Times" to denounce andcorrect the wantonness of power. On the whole, however,the lot of slaves in Persia is perhaps as favourable asthat institution will admit of. They are not treated withcontempt as in America; there are no special laws to holdthem in a state of degradation; they are frequently restored to freedom, and when this happens, they take theirstation in society without any reference to their colour ordescent. White slaves frequently rise to the highest employments, but these are commonly captives taken in war.It is said not to be easy to make an estimate of the numberof slaves imported annually into Persia from the Red Seaand Zanjibar. They certainly are not numerous, judging by the few to be seen in the streets of the large townsin the north of Persia. In those of the south they aredoubtless in greater numbers, and particularly in the low,level tract bordering the coast, of which Bushire andBenderabbas are near the extremities. The difficulty offorming a correct calculation on the subject, arises fromthe practice of each petty chief in the Persian Gulf beingan importer in his own vessels, and from the slaves beinglanded at a variety of small harbours extending over agreat length of coast. The number is supposed not toexceed two or three thousand annually, of whom a greatmany die after leaving the hot region of the Persian coast.

Another source for obtaining slaves for the Persianmarket, is by means of the pilgrims to Kerbella. Theseslaves are conveyed directly across the desert from Meccaor Medina to Bagdad, to which latter city the pilgrimsalways resort. The Persian Hajees also on their returnfrom Mecca often make purchases of one or two negroes.A few also are brought by the route of Damascus, buttaken collectively the importation of slaves to Persia bythese routes is insignificant, and its cessation or continuanceis entirely dependent on the will of the Turkish Government.

On the 1st of September we commenced our return toTehran, whither the Shah had already been gone a weekpreviously. The Russian Mission had anticipated theShah's movement in apprehension of the difficulty of procuring food in the event of following the royal camp.From Ispahan the regular road is by Cashan and Koom,but we, from the same reasons as influenced the Russians,retraced our steps to Khonsar, and from thence we wentto Mellayer and regained our former road to Sava.

Not a single incident occurred to vary the monotony ofthe road, excepting a trait of Persian manners. Ourcamp was joined by a Persian gentleman, who had formerlyheld a very high post in the Shah's service, but who wasnow in disgrace. Late one night we heard at a considerable distance a noise resembling deep moaning, accompanied by a heavy, sustained sound, at short intervals.These unpleasant symptoms of distress having continuedsome time, we found on inquiry that the Khan, ourtravelling companion, a stanch disciple of Bacchus, hadquarrelled with his cook, whose feet he had put intothe fellek, and was now giving him a sound bastinado.It is hard to say how long the punishment would havecontinued, whether one or two hours, had not we causedit immediately to cease. The fellek is a long, stoutpiece of wood, each end of which is held by a ferash;the culprit's ancles are attached to two loops in the middle,and he is thrown on his back, by which means the soles ofhis feet are turned towards the sky. Two ferashes then floghim on the feet with long thin wands, which are renewedfrom time to time. The punishment inflicted in this wayis sometimes most dreadful, lasting for hours it is said,but no one dies in consequence, though the patient oftenfaints under the infliction. Some years ago no rank wasexempt from this chastisem*nt. The Shah constantlycaused it to be inflicted in his own presence on delinquentgovernors. In the last Russian war the Asof ood Dowleh,a nobleman of the highest rank and a cousin of the Shah,suffered this punishment in the public square of Tehran,for having sustained a defeat from the Muscovites. As ahomage to his rank, a carpet was spread on which he wasplaced, and the first blow was struck by the Shah's son,Abbas Meerza, the heir to the throne.

When the Khan was called to account for the breachof etiquette he had been guilty of in inflicting punishmentin the Vezeer Mookhtar's camp, he amusingly alleged thatit was done solely out of respect to Colonel S—, hiscook having had the effrontery to say that our cook hadtaken the whole of the fowls in the village. These Persians are very strange people; they are ever on the watchto discover each other's intrigues, falsehoods, and finesses.A movement of the finger, a turn of the eye, is not leftunnoticed, and receives an interpretation. Yet each maninvariably thinks that his own plots and intrigues are theacme of human ingenuity, wholly unfathomable by therest of mankind. How often have I heard the Persiansecretaries of the Mission preparing little paltry schemes,which the dullest understanding could unravel, for arranging insignificant matters, in which all that was necessarywas to tell the truth, and all the time thinking theywere performing the cleverest and most impenetrable featsof diplomacy. The credulity of Persians, on the otherhand, is also sometimes unaccountable. Knowing thechicanery and falsehood of their countrymen, they againand again go on believing and trusting each other to anincredible extent. When an aggrieved person is askedwhat induced him to put faith in the offender, his generalanswer is, "he swore a vast number of oaths; I said tomyself, perhaps he is telling the truth." They have oddnames for describing the moral qualities. Sedākat meanssincerity, honesty, candour; but when a man is said to bepossessed of sedākat, the meaning is that he is a credulous, contemptible simpleton. Much in the same mannera man of dashing courage is called deewāneh, whichmeans mad.

CHAPTER XVII.

A night alarm – The new Vezeer – The old Vezeer – His wife – Manner of his execution – Return and marriage of his widow – Armenian wedding – The Elchees from Arabia, Khiva, and Afghanistan – Refugee Afghan Khans – Excursion to Demawend – The "Sublime Well" – Defile and Eelyats – Town of Ask – Hot springs – Mountain chiefs – Ill-advised change of residence – Lareejanee women – Lareejanee lady governor – Persian breakfast – Jonas Hanway's account of Mazenderan – Return to the "Sublime Well."

November, 1851.–WE were alarmed late one night,not long ago, by my husband being aroused to receivea letter which one of his Persian friends had written tohim. As I was never perfectly exempt from disquiet inPersia, my first impression was that either the Shah hadbeen murdered, or that the Russian Mission was about tobe attacked, perhaps our own. The letter was not freefrom alarming contents. It contained an announcementthat the Shah had ordered the attendance of 400 of hisGholams, or personal guards, and that all the courtiershad been summoned to the palace at that unusual hour.What could have happened? What was impending?Had a conspiracy been discovered just on the point ofexplosion? In an hour another letter arrived: all thispreparation was directed against one man. The Shahhad seized Meerza Tekkee Khan, his Prime Ministerand brother-in-law. His Majesty was a very young man,only one-and-twenty, and such was the ascendency acquiredby intellectual vigour, that he did not venture on the displacement of his minister without anxiety and precaution.And yet this minister, I hear, governed well. He hadfaced and resisted, sometimes perhaps injudiciously, thetwo lions, between which, as a former Persian Vezeer hadsaid, that meek lamb, Persia, was placed; he had improved and increased the army, the finances were thriving,and economy was the order of the day, to the greatincrease of his own personal enemies. But he made theusual mistake of degrading the Shah into a cipher. Heeven spoke of him with contempt, often styling him EenPisereh, this young fellow. This could not last beyonda certain time, though the catastrophe happened soonerthan was anticipated.

The intrigues to gain the vacant prize immediatelybegan. Who was to win–was it to be a member of theEnglish or the Russian party or faction? The Shah,notwithstanding his inexperience, made a most wise selection. He fixed on a man of great talent, fully conversantwith the affairs of government, and, it may be added, withthe intrigues of Persian court life. But there was onedifficulty. His Majesty had formerly spontaneously placedMeerza Agha Khan, whose title was, the Ittimad oodDowleh, the Trusted of the State, under English protection; and he felt that if the future Vezeer were to preservethis safeguard, the minister would ere long become the realmonarch. His Majesty adopted a Persian and summarymethod of settling the affair. He shut up the Khan inthe royal palace for three days, and told him to take hischoice between being Grand Vezeer to the Shahinshah,the King of Kings, or a hanger-on of the EnglishMinister. The Khan was, or pretended to be, in adilemma. He sent a message to the Mission asking foradvice. The answer was, that English protection waspreferable to the Crown of the Kyanees itself, but that asthe Khan was clearly determined to be Vezeer, he hadbetter decide at once. The Shah's choice has been welljustified. The Sedr Azem has ceased to be Englishwithout becoming Russian, and is perhaps as fully aPersian as a Persian can be. He governs with prudenceand popularity, never forgetting that the Shah is supreme.The present war has been a trial of his inclinations andhis wisdom. Notwithstanding a variety of inducements,religious and political, to avenge on Turkey manywrongs and insults, he appears to have maintained thedifficult part of neutrality with impartiality and success.

The fallen Vezeer, Meerza Tekkee Khan, the poorAmeer, met his downfall with resignation and composure,though with sadness, for he knew the fate of a Persianminister whose overthrow is followed by imprisonment.He made a false move, and forfeited his life. The Persiangovernment had placed him of their own free will underthe protection of Colonel S—, or rather of the BritishGovernment, and arrangements were made for his maintenance in honour and luxury in a neighbouring city, andof course in safety. Misled by promises from othersources, the Ameer cast off his English protection at thevery last hour, and refused to depart at the time and tothe place arranged. The sources relied on failed him athis need, and abandoned him in a position worse thanbefore.

It was now resolved to send him to Cashan, there to beimprisoned. His wife, the Shah's sister, a young womanof eighteen, resolved to accompany her husband, in spiteof the dissuasions of her brother and her mother. Conjugal affection does exist in Persia after all. A few daysafterwards, as we were driving outside the walls of thetown, I unexpectedly approached within a few yards of aparty travelling towards Ispahan. It was the Ameer andthe princess. They were both in a takhterewan, surrounded by guards. It seemed to me like a funeral procession, and I have seldom beheld a more melancholysight. I longed to open the carefully closed takhterewan;to take the doomed Ameer and his poor young wife withtheir two infant children into the carriage, and to driveoff with them to the Mission-house.

I may as well anticipate his fate. He remained forseveral months in confinement at Cashan with the princess.As a security against poison, that exemplary lady made ita rule to partake first of all the food presented to theAmeer. In the mean time his enemies had not been idle.They feared lest he should one day be restored to favour.The Shah's ear was daily filled with the danger of leavingalive a man like him, who only waited for an opportunityeither to destroy his sovereign, or ruin the kingdom.Who the murderers were I shall not disclose, but at lengththe fatal order was sealed, and dispatched in charge ofthe Shah's Ferash Bashee, a man whom the Ameer hadraised from the dust, and a party of Meerghazabs. Forsome reason, which no one but a Persian can understand,recourse was had to guile. A lady of the haram was sentto the Princess, telling her to dry her tears, for that theShah had relented, and that the Ameer was to return toTehran or go to Kerbella, the usual haven for Persians whohave lost court favour. "The khelat or coat of honour,"said she, "is on the way, and will arrive in an hour or two;go, therefore, to the bath, and prepare to receive it." TheAmeer all this time had not once ventured to quit thesafety afforded by the apartment of the Princess, and ofher presence. On hearing the joyful news, however, heresolved to take the advice of this woman, and indulge inthe luxury of a bath. He left the Princess, and she neversaw him more. When he reached the bath the fatal orderwas revealed to him, and the crime perpetrated. TheFerash Bashee and his vile crew presented themselves,and the choice of the mode of death was given to him. Itis said he bore his fate with patience and fortitude. Hisveins were opened, and he at length expired.

Though every one feared and some expected this catastrophe, all Tehran was struck with horror at this act.The Shah was not much blamed, but the instigators, highas was their station, were execrated as murderers. Thepatriotism evinced in the earnest desire of the Ameer toelevate Persia was remembered, and his faults werepardoned. As for me, I felt so indignant that I onlywished to quit a country where such crimes are sanctionedby the Government, and committed without remorse.Remorse, I believe, is unknown in Persia. Shocking actsare perpetrated, and one never hears of any uneasiness ofmind on the part of the perpetrators. Suicide is quiteunknown, and insanity is nearly equally so.

The Princess, widow of the Ameer, was brought backto Tehran by the woman sent to ensnare her husband. Ihad never before visited the former, that model of aPersian matron; but soon after her return to Tehran, Ilost no time in waiting on her Royal Highness to show myrespect for her noble and most unusual conduct. Contraryto my expectation, and to my disappointment, her motherwas present, so I soon withdrew; as etiquette preventedthe princess from opening her lips. She was plainlydressed in a kind of mourning. She was pretty, andlooked more like a stout girl of twelve years old than themother of two children.

As I have often said in the course of this volume, thePersians are a strange people. Not long after the returnof the Princess, she was compelled by the Shah to marrythe son of the Prime Minister. This afforded an opportunity to the joke-loving Iranees to say that the Shah'ssister was transferable like the Grand Vezeer's signet-ringof office, and that whoever took the one must take theother.

December.–We have had a wedding in the Mission.An English gentleman in Tehran married an Armenianlady, and to prevent any mistake as to its validity,there being no Protestant clergyman in Tehran, theydetermined to perform the Armenian rite under theauspices of the English flag. Three priests "assisted"one another in the performance of the ceremony, most ofwhich seemed much like our own. The bride and bridegroom knelt down and were covered with a shawl. Thepriest placed a large open book on their heads, out ofwhich he chanted prayers for a considerable time; theythen drank wine out of the same cup, after which theywere released from their hiding-place, and saluted eachother as man and wife. At the déjeuner which followedimmediately after, the bride (although it was her secondperformance in that character) and her maids, were toobashful to appear; so they sat on the ground in my roomand solaced themselves with tea and pipes, while thehusband was busy in replying to the numerous toastsproposed in honour of the lady by the Englishmen of theparty. The Armenians must have been much surprisedat this custom, but I dare say would have gone on drinking the bride's health till next morning, provided thesupply of champagne held out. After the breakfast thebride and bridegroom walked down the avenue of ourhouse arm in arm, according to Armenian etiquette, tothe astonishment of the Persians who beheld them. It isconsidered an outrageous breach of decorum for a lady tolean on her husband's arm, so I always carefully avoideddoing so. At the gate they mounted their horses, andwent home, the gentleman preceding, as the nobler half,and the lady followed by a train of mules carrying thewhole of her household goods.

February, 1852.–If an Englishwoman were able topartake more freely in the society that Tehran affords, shewould find living in that city less monotonous. Elchees, orenvoys, from time to time arrive from distant countries,who usually visit the Mission, but I am excluded fromseeing them, although I should have liked very much tolisten to these semibarbarous ambassadors. Among thelate arrivals was an Arab Elchee, who styled himself theEnvoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary ofsome Arab potentate. He and his followers were a wildand rough looking party, yet quite different from KoordsLoors, or Toorkomans. He had sufficient diplomaticknowledge to be very careful of his own interests. Threeminutes had not elapsed after entering the room beforehe asked my husband to make him a present of a watch,and when informed that his watches were limited to theone he wore, the Elchee avowed his disbelief of the assertion with perfect candour.

Another personage of the same kind was the Elcheefrom Khiva–slave-buying Khiva. There was a windowwhere unseen I could observe these novel visitors as theyapproached the house. The ambassador was a fat andflorid, round-faced man, who, were it not for his unmistakeable little peering eyes, would have strongly resembleda native of Germany. But this Uzbek, like all othergenuine Toorks of pure blood, could not conceal his race.He sauntered up the avenue precisely with the gait of aduck, with great dignity and grace. All Orientals seemto consider this waddling movement highly imposing. Atall events it gave me time to scrutinize and to covet thebeautifully embroidered silk robes which formed theambassador's garments.

The Elchee presented to Colonel S— a magnificentletter from the Khan his master, in which he styledhimself the Sultan of Kharezm and Shadow of God. Itwas fully a yard in length and not much less in breadth.This epistle was a curious specimen of gilding and paint,and was enclosed in a sumptuous bag of gold brocade.The extraordinary country in which he lives made himan object of interest, and I am besides grateful to hisExcellency for the present of an immense tiger skin, theoriginal owner of which had been shot in the desert nearKhiva. This was novel intelligence to me, who hadimagined that a tiger required a climate approaching tothat of the torrid zone to enable him to exist. In Khiva,on the contrary, the cold is so intense as to freeze completely over the great river Oxus. Living in their distantoasis, surrounded by nearly impenetrable deserts, theKhivans carry on their iniquitous barter of Persians withthe Toorkomans in security. Nevertheless Nadir Shahone hundred years ago contrived to reach and to subdueKhiva in spite of her deserts. They formerly maintaineda similar trade in Russians kidnapped by the Kirgheez,and Kara Kalpak, and Kazzak wanderers in the desertson the north and north-east of Khiva. But the fear ofanother expedition like General Perowski's, which tookplace fourteen years ago, has relieved Russian subjectsfrom this direful fate. Thousands of Persians, eitheractual captives or their descendants, are supposed tolanguish in hopeless slavery. It is only another invasion like Nadir Shah's which offers them any prospect of release, and of this there is no chance: Nadirhad the spoil of Delhi at his disposal, and the presentShah has too many engagements nearer home to engrosshis attention. Their only prospect of relief is from Russia,and I am told that, judging from the positions she hastaken up on the Jaxartes, near its mouth, from whenceshe will one day be able to threaten Khiva, Bokhara, andKakan, she seems disposed to realize it. (F.)

Among other diplomatic visitors were the Elcheesfrom Herat and Candahar on the part of their respective rulers, Yar Mahommed Khan and KohendilKhan, and subsequently from the son of the former chief,Saeed Mahommed Khan. These however I never saw.They did not visit at the Mission, as it did not suit thepolicy of their masters in their then subject condition toPersia to avow any cordiality towards the English. Ihear Persia plays her part with some cleverness in thisquarter of the world: she seems never to allow these twostates to remain in quiet, in which design she is mainlyaided by the native restlessness of the Afghans. Sincethe death of that clever and enterprising but wickedchief, Yar Mahommed Khan, who maintained himself inindependence in Herat, the Persian government has sustained his imbecile son Saeed Mahommed Khan, whosedays were consumed in intoxication. Thus Herat fellvirtually under the control if not into the hands of theShah. Murder upon murder of the Afghan chiefs ensued,in which Persia was more to blame than the mock rulerof Herat.

These Afghan Elchees are always accompanied by anumerous retinue. It is a pretty sight to see a body ofAfghan horse in movement–they crowd closely togetherin a promiscuous compact body, moving rapidly forwardat a slouching gait, which their horses seem able topreserve for a considerable time without apparent effort.Instead of the tall black cap of the Persians, theAfghans wear turbans; they have a wild and peculiarlook, which makes them easily distinguishable from theother natives of these countries. Their manners aresaid to be far less polished than those of their Persianneighbours; the state of civilisation, too, in Afghanistanbeing on a far lower scale than that of Persia. TheAfghans boast of their freedom, and ridicule the subjectionof the Persians to their monarchs; to our ideas, however,their freedom is of a nature scarcely desirable, consistingprincipally of a power to do evil, rather than of institutionsfor the benefit of society: directly the reverse of ourdefinition of liberty–"to use your own so as not to hurtanother." Assassination, the Persians say, is the dailypastime of the chiefs and nobles of Afghanistan, andaccording to their light way of talking, an Afghan is onlya bad Persian, more false and more venal, a man whopauses at no crime or baseness in pursuit of his ownschemes of selfishness or aggrandizement.

Several Afghan Khans took sanctuary about this timein the British Mission. A number of Herat chiefsopposed to their imbecile ruler had been sent by SaeedMahommed Khan to Persia to remain in the custody ofthe Persian Government, which undertook the honourableoffice of Meerghazab, and caused many among them tobe put to death, or, to speak more truly, to be murdered.Some were brought to Tehran, where they found means toget within the Mission premises. I of course saw nothingof these refugees, but I heard they were not in the leastprepossessing. Our sympathy for the fate of people intheir condition is moderated by the conviction that areversal of position alone is wanting to make them actwith similar cold-blooded ferocity. As the permanentresidence of these chiefs in the Mission was out of thequestion, Colonel S. according to his usual practice madean arrangement with the Prime Minister which enabledthem to leave their sanctuary with impunity. (G.)

July.-Summer in Persia, as I have already described, is most wearisome, but this year was a morethan ordinary trial during our period of banishment.In Persian metaphor Izraeel, the Angel of Death, hadbrandished his sword though he did not strike. Theresult was our being obliged to undertake a journey tothe mountainous part of Mazenderan, to try the effectof the mineral waters at Ask. The distance was trifling,not above eighty miles, but, from the nature of thecountry it was necessary to pass through, the journey wasformidable to an invalid. Though the road was in agreat measure over mountains, we were fortunately ableto proceed fifty miles in a carriage, to the neighbourhoodof the town of Demawend. This charming and secludedvalley is an amphitheatre three or four miles across, filledwith cultivation and fruit-trees. I could not help regretting that the Shah had not fixed on this beautifulspot for his yeïlak, or summer residence. But hisMajesty seems impervious to heat, the hottest sun notpreventing him from going out hunting. Not a trace ofruins is to be found in Demawend, although amongPersian traditions its antiquity reaches the fabulous daysof their history–those of Kaïomers and Jemsheed. Although the great mountain derives its name from thisvalley, it is not visible from Demawend, owing to thevicinity of lower hills. Near the valley we found acharming spot for our tents, large trees, a delightfulbit of grassy ground, and a glorious fountain whichgushed out of a rock in a foaming volume of water. Itwas called Cheshmeh Aalā, the Sublime Spring. Theremainder of the road being over precipitous mountainsand rocky defiles, we resolved to leave our young childrenhere under charge of two English womenservants andsome Persian attendants. Here they lived in perfecttranquillity until our return, which was not before fourweeks. I record this in favour of our servants and of thevillagers. Persian servants in a house are absolutelyworthless, they do nothing; but on a journey they areadmirable, full of activity and attention, and they seemnever to suffer from fatigue. The nomade life is undoubtedly the one intended by nature for an Irānee.

Soon after leaving Cheshmeh Aalā, we ascended the faceof an immense mountain-pass by a zigzag path, up whichthe Uzbek pony I had procured was carefully led. Evenwith this precaution the ascent was most unpleasant.Arrived at the top the prospect was worse. We descendedthrough a narrow defile, so steep and rocky that we wereforced to walk a great part of the way. The road wasdiversified by numerous small encampments of Sylsapooreelyats from Verameen, who had pitched their tents invarious nooks of the mountains, close to the stream whichwound down the pass. I shall never forget the desolateaspect of one of these encampments. The squalidappearance of the tents, the pale ill-fed children, and thesolemn careworn look of the women, were very painful, andfully confirmed what I before said of the misery of manyof those eelyats. On halting for the night, we found wewere in Mazenderan. It was a delightfully cool spot,surrounded by high mountains, but without a village orinhabitants; situated on a high bank overlooking the riverHeraz, which flows past the city of Amol into the Caspian.We enjoyed the cool breezes, and the fresh trout fromthe river, and pitied our friends in sultry Shemeroon.Next day the road was not quite so precipitous; weskirted round the mountain of Demawend, and saw theeverlasting snow within a few hundred yards of us, whileunder our feet there was a brilliant carpet of brightblossoms and fragrant herbs. On our right hand was asteep precipice, at the bottom of which rolled the Heraz,and the road was not too difficult to prevent us fromappreciating the pleasant embalmed air and wild scene.At length we arrived close to the town of Ask, whichseemed to me to be buried in a hole in the mountains,and my heart failed me when I saw the formidabledescent we must make before reaching it. The pathseemed nearly perpendicular, so I descended from mypoor old pony, and walked or rather slid down the wholedescent. The Mazenderanees who came out. to meet uslaughed at my alarm, and said it was an excellent roadcompared with the mountain paths between Ask and theflat land near Amol. At the entrance of the town wefound a large and good house belonging to the chief,Abbas Koolee Khan, Lareejanee, an intimate friend ofmy husband, prepared for our reception.

Ask is the capital of the mountain-chiefship calledLareejan, and contains about 2500 inhabitants. It isan extraordinary place, situated on the side of a greatmountain, and, excepting where the river Heraz has formedan opening, surrounded by other immense mountains,pre-eminent among which was hoary Demawend, whosetop, however, we lost sight of, as we were so completely under it.10 Unless Meerza Antonio, as Sir AnthonyShirley was called, was married to a woman of his owncountry, which could hardly be, seeing Shah Abbas theGreat had given him as a wife one of his own relations,I think I must be the first Englishwoman who has beenin Mazenderan. I am told that it was in the neighbouring district of Hezār Jereeb, Sir Anthony Shirleylaid the first rudiments of a regular force in Persia. Thedescendants of his corps of Toofengchees, or matchlockmen, maintain a reputation at this day, as being the bestin the land.

The district of Lareejan is so completely enclosed bymountains and narrow gorges as to be almost inaccessibleto an invader. On this account the chief and his dependents are somewhat unmanageable. At every successionto the throne, or other time of commotion, they generallydeclare themselves yāghee, or in revolt, and refuse to paytheir contributions to the revenue. The other mountainchiefs follow the same course, and our host Abbas KooleeKhan was not the least conspicuous among the mutineers.The British Mission has more than once been of use inbringing these unruly chiefs to a proper sense of obedience.

The mineral springs were not conveniently situated foran invalid. They lay at the foot of the mountain on whichthe town is placed, close to the river Herāz. The springswere of two kinds–ferruginous and sulphureous, separatedfrom each other by the river. The water of the fountainmy husband used was tepid, and bubbled out of the earthin an unceasing stream, forming a small tank round thesprings in which invalids immersed themselves. Toremedy the inconvenience of the absence of a bathing-house, Colonel S— pitched a tent over one of thesebasins of water for the performance of his ablutions,which otherwise would have attracted the whole townto witness.

The house we resided in was rather distant from thewells, and we found a ride through the long ill-pavedtown twice a-day disagreeable. Having seen at the otherside of the town near the well, a neat new-looking dwelling,we resolved to take possession of it. The Lareejaneesadvised us not, saying we should regret the change. Thiscounsel we attributed to mere Persian plotting andintrigue, and in spite of admonition we went. In thenight we found ourselves attacked by legions of bugs;for that night, rest was out of the question. Next daywe thought we had hit upon an expedient for bafflingthese our mortal foes, and we pitched a small tent inthe open court of the house, and calmly retired to rest.Judge of the horror we felt when, on awaking, we perceived they were in ten times greater numbers than on thenight before! The whole nation of the invaders had, as itwere, been let loose against us, and we were on the pointof being devoured; the marvel was where they had comefrom. After a rigid scrutiny we discovered that theground on which the beds lay was filled with these insects;they must have promised themselves the enjoyment ofan abundant carnival. We decamped at daybreak, toohappy to regain our old abode. I should exceedinglylike to know on what these bloodsuckers subsisted beforethe night of our arrival, and how they have gained a livelihood since that memorable epoch.

Abbas Koolee Khan, Lareejanee, was absent from Askduring our residence there, but his wife governed in hisplace. She bore a high reputation as a woman of greatrespectability and shrewdness, and as a most excellent manager of her husband's property. I had the pleasure ofseeing her several times, and was very much amused by theremarks and reflections made by her and two other wives,and the mother, sisters, and various other female relativesof Abbas Koolee Khan. These ladies all seemed to livein Abbas Koolee Khan's house. Their husbands wereabsent with him, and had appointments in his regiment,which was stationed at Sheeraz. I understand that theladies of Mazenderan are held in great esteem for theirgood qualities,–a remark which is said to be applicable tothe women of the tribes in general. The principal wife,who managed everything, was very handsome; but I wasstruck by the beauty of her little daughter, Rookheeya,who was, I think, the most charming child I ever beheld.She looked exactly like a little Jewess. The countenances of the Mazenderanees would indicate a descentfrom the tribes of Israel, to which I imagine they have noclaim or pretension. The imputation would shock them.Their features are more delicate than those of the otherinhabitants of Persia, and bear a strong resemblance tothose of the ancient Persians, as they are preserved in thesculptures at Persepolis and Shahpoor.

The Khanum was evidently leading a life of prosperity,yet two subjects gave her grief. She had not seen herhusband for three years, and she heard he had in thosethree years taken two wives, one at Sheeraz and theother, lately, in Tehran. Her meditations were turnedupon paying a visit to the Khan, and on ejecting these tworivals. But how was this to be effected, as she could notabandon her government of Lareejan without permission?It was suggested that the Khanum should ask me; thatI should apply to my husband to propose to the Khan toinvite his wife to pay him a visit at Tehran. I promisedto do all I could, and accordingly, on my return to Goolahek, a message was sent to Abbas Koolee Khan,representing the wishes of the Khanum. The replywas favourable; but when the Khanum found shemight go if she chose, she changed her mind. She reflected that, though the ejection of a rival was something,yet the loss of the keys of the well-filled store-rooms ofAsk and Amol, and the transfer of all the power shenow possessed to the hands of another wife, were ideasnot to be borne; so she determined to remain where shewas.

These hospitable people insisted on making us theirguests during our stay, with our large party of servantsand horses. It was only a firm resistance, and an intimation that we should be forced to withdraw from Ask,that enabled us to free them from so costly a display oftheir friendship. After all, contrary to compact, theKhanum frequently sent presents of sheep, rice, anddressed dinners to the servants. She invited us to breakfast at her house, and, as the entertainment was the onlyone of the kind I saw in Persia, I may as well give a description of it. We were shown into a large roomcommanding a fine view of the town and valley. No onewas there to receive us, the presence of our Persianservants having excluded the Khanum and her femalerelations, and my presence having had the same effect onthe gentlemen of her family. Two immense woodentrays, each carried by two men, were brought in anddeposited on the ground; there seemed to be fifteen ortwenty dishes, large and small, on each tray. Therewere three or four kinds of pillaos of mutton, lamb, andfowl, and several stews and ragouts of most alarmingrichness of the same viands; salmon, trout, and anotherfish from the Caspian; omelettes and various other dishesof eggs, several kinds of dressed vegetables, pickles of allkinds in great profusion, and various sherbets of orange,lemon, pomegranate, &c. This was a substantial breakfast for two persons, but I was rather surprised to seetwo more trays of precisely the same description carriedin, and presently, two more still. This continued untilthere were actually sixteen or twenty trays in the room.The whole floor was covered with them. The Mazenderanees may have good appetites, but it is not easy to guessthe meaning of this inordinate hospitality. It was, however, a grateful sight to our servants, for, after we hadconcluded, all the trays were transferred to them.Apropos to appetites, I remember hearing that whenPersian gentlemen dined at the Mission, after partakingabundantly of a European dinner, with every appearanceof relish, on returning to their own houses at midnightthey sat down to a formal Persian dinner. It seems thatwithout an ample allowance of pillao they do not feelcomfortable, or certain whether they have dined or not.

I was very much amused at seeing two bottles of wineprotrude from the pockets of Mahommed Agha, ourbutler. This breakfast being given at our dinner-hour,he thought it objectionable to deprive us of the usual accompaniment at that meal; but, being ashamed of beingdetected by the Mazenderanees in the ignoble duty ofcarrying wine, he had placed the bottles in this unsafesituation. The natives of Mazenderan are strict Mussulmans, and have not yet adopted the wine-drinking habitsnot uncommon in other parts of Persia. The presence ofthe Russian squadron near Asterabad is likely to effect achange in this part of their religious observances.

The Khanum told me that Ask was only their yeïlak,or summer residence, and that Amol, near the Caspian,was their kishlak, or winter abode. She said that inOctober, nearly all the inhabitants of Ask would retirefrom the mountains until late in the spring of next year.The cold of Ask she declared to be intolerable in winter.This I could well conceive, as the crops were still green.We were obliged in July to wear warm clothes, and usedoften to warm ourselves by walking up and down infront of the house in the sun.

In spite of the seclusion of her life, the Khanum was awoman of great intelligence and observation. The caresof administration seemed to have sharpened her understanding, and I am told that Koordish and other eelyatwomen often display similar intelligence, owing probablyto their being treated with more consideration, and allowedto participate more or less in the affairs of the family, andeven of the tribe. She was enthusiastic in praise of Mazenderan. According to her it was a degree better thanparadise, "Where, in the world," said the Khanum, "isthere a place like it,–with the beautiful sea on one side,full of salmon, herrings, and haddocks, besides the shocking porpoises and sturgeon which the Russians eat; and,on the other, these grand mountains to cool us in summer,and warm us in winter with their fine forests? Whateverthe earth produces," cried the lady, waxing warmer, "isto be found in Mazenderan; and then the women,–arethey not the handsomest in Persia, and the men the bravestin the world? Who ever ventured to attack them in theforest? When did the Russians dare to show themselvesin Mazenderan?" I asked the Khanum if the rain, thejungles, and the swamps were to be counted among theexcellences of her province, but her enthusiasm placedher far above the reach of any taunt.

She pressed me to pay her a visit at Amol, in the levelcountry, before winter, at which time the city was delightful, according to her account. It is situated in the plainat the foot of the mountains, not far from the sea, andsurrounded by beautiful woods and groves of oranges andlemons. In short, she said so much, that if there hadbeen a good road, I should have been tempted to havevisited a place so different from Irak; but this is one of theworst points of Persia,–that one is precluded from agreeable excursions, such as are so pleasant in other countries,by the impracticable roads, hardly safe, even for those accustomed to traverse them, on horseback.

From all I can learn, I am sure this lady's affectionfor her native province is not misplaced. One of its drawbacks, however, is the vicinity of the Toorkomans, whichforces the population of Mazenderan to be constantly ontheir guard. The peasantry are seldom without arms,even in the cultivation of their fields. The inhabitants ofthis province are said to make good soldiers in irregularwarfare, for which the face of their own country hasso well prepared them. Unlike the other parts ofPersia, Mazenderan, as well as Geelan, is covered withthe densest forests of fine timber intermingled withshrubs and brushwood. All the forest trees of Englandgrow here in the greatest perfection. Along the coast astripe of land varying from three to twenty miles inbreadth, runs the whole length of the two provinces, orrather three, for in Persian geography or statistics,Asterabad is regarded as a separate province, in honour,I suppose, of its having been the original seat of the royalKajjar tribe,–though few of them are now left in thatdistrict. This stripe of land is perfectly flat; it is coveredwith morasses, jungles, and rice plantations, which, addedto the almost unceasing rain, make the country nearlyimpassable, unless by the beaten track, or by the remainsof a causeway constructed by Shah Abbas. Thatmonarch delighted to reside in Mazenderan, where hebuilt a sumptuous palace. This level tract is so unhealthy in summer as to cause its inhabitants to abandonit during that season, and to take refuge in the highmountains which bound this plain along its entire course,and which are accessible only through very difficultpasses. That quaint old traveller, Jonas Hanway, saysthat, excepting old women, mules, and poultry, all otheranimals pine away with sickness. These mountains (thefirst range of them we crossed immediately after leavingthe Cheshmeh Aalā) separate Tehran from the Caspian.They are known under the name of Elboorz, and can be seenfrom Shemeroon. They abound in mineral wealth, particularly in coal and iron. Within even thirty miles ofTehran, there are two places where coal can be procuredin abundance, at the mere cost of digging and conveyingit to the city. In a country destitute of wood like thatpart of Persia, it might be supposed that so bountiful asupply would have been highly prized; but such is not thecase, charcoal and wood are in general use as fuel, andfor the favourite koorsee, the former substance is preferable to coal. It is chiefly by the blacksmiths and in thehouses of Europeans that coal is used, but this lattercirc*mstance will gradually extend its consumption to theen tire population.

From the above remarks it will be seen that Geelanand Mazenderan are sister provinces. In the aspect ofthe country, the climate, the manners of the people, thereis a complete resemblance. The productions, too, aresimilar, with the exception that in Geelan the culture ofsilk receives a much greater share of the care and attention of the inhabitants, and large quantities of a fine kindare produced. (H.) The exportation of this article ofcommerce conduces to the wealth of the province, and thusgives it a vast superiority over Mazenderan, where thesame substance, though of a coarser kind, is manufactured.Sturgeon and salmon are caught in immense quantities onthese coasts; the fisheries of the sturgeon are in thehands of Russians, who rent them from the PersianGovernment. Having no scales, visible at least, this fishis valueless as an article of food to Persians. The bestcaviare is said to be obtained in the Caspian. The twoprovinces under a judicious government could be rendered highly valuable. The Russians have more thanonce attempted to possess themselves of Geelan, andtowards the close of the last century, in the reign ofa*gha Mahommed Khan, the founder of the Kajjars,they made a bold effort to establish themselves in Asterabad. They landed in that country with troops and guns,and commenced building a fort. Agha Mahommed Khan,feeling himself unable to oppose this aggression by force,had recourse to stratagem: be decoyed the Russiancommander and his officers to an entertainment, wherethey were immediately seized, and, under the threat ofinstant death, forced to surrender their fort, which wasrazed to the ground.

That excellent Oriental traveller, Mr. James BayleyFraser, describes with much force the natural power ofresistance to foreign invasion possessed by the province ofGeelan. The following remarks seem equally applicableto Mazenderan:–"There are few countries more completely protected by nature against external aggressionthan Geelan, for its coast is lined with a belt of impenetrable forest, which opposes a most disheartening aspect toan invading foe, whose perplexity would be increased bythe deep moordābs, or backwaters, and extensive morassesequally covered with swamps that lie behind this first barrier. At the same time these very obstacles would provethe best advantage to defenders acquainted with their intricacies, and afford them means of securely annoying theirenemies. On the south the passes through its mountainsare of extreme steepness, difficulty, and length, and couldbe obstructed or defended with so much case, that nohostile army, unassisted by treachery, could hope to forcethem."

Having finished a profitless course of the mineralwaters, both in bathing and drinking, we took leave ofthe kind Larajanees, and set out on our return to theValley of Demawend. We had no choice but to clamberup by the same steep road that we had slid down fourweeks previously. Up-hill the trial to the nerves was notso great. At Cheshmeh Aalā, from whence I received adaily messenger, I found that all had passed prosperously.Every one seemed anxious to make the solitary life of theparty we had left there as agreeable as was possible. Ibegin to think Persians are better people than travellersare willing to allow. English agents are often broughtinto contact with bad classes, and they hastily assume thewhole nation to be equally vicious. In no country couldthe two servants and young children we left at CheshmehAalā have been treated with more kindness, attention,and respect.

¹⁰ Very few Englishmen or other Europeans have had the enterpriseto ascend Demawend, whose height is, I believe, 13,000 feet. Mr.Thompson, of Her Majesty's Mission, succeeded in the attempt. Heset out from Ask with two guides, and spent the first day in reachinga shed half-way up the mountain. The second evening, at sunset, hearrived at the summit, and spent the night in a cavern heated by awarm sulphureous vapour. At Tehran, on clear days, smoke is generally visible issuing from the top. The mountain is evidently a volcano,almost extinct. In the morning, at sunrise, they sallied forth hopingto have a grand panorama of Mazenderan, the Goorgan and Toorkomancoast, Tehran, &c. Nothing was visible but dense clouds. The coldwas so intense that they immediately rushed down the mountain attheir utmost speed: this was in August. I never could comprehendwhy they did not return to the cavern and wait a few hours for theclouds to pass away.

CHAPTER XVIII.

Return to Goolahek – Attempt to murder the Shah – General flight into town – Fate of the conspirators – Strange punishments – Arrival of the Turkish ambassador – Farewell breakfast with the Grand Vezeer's wife.

August, 1852.–GOOLAHEK felt very sultry when we returned to it from our pretty encampment at the "SublimeWell." My husband, however, did not wish to be longabsent from the neighbourhood of the Court, so we couldnot prolong our stay by its cool waters. A few daysafter our return, when seated in the coolest chamber of ahouse in the village, the heat having driven us from ourtents, Meerza Hoossein Koolee, the first Persian Secretary of the Mission, entered the room ghastly and gasping.

"The Shah has been killed!" faltered the Meerza, whoused himself frequently to assert that he was the mosttimid man in Persia. "We shall all be murdered," Iimmediately exclaimed.

We were quite alone in this moment of deep anxiety,all the members of the Mission having happened to go totown that day, though in a few minutes two or threeprinces came to our camp, thinking it the safest place insuch a crisis. We had, it is true, a guard of Persiansoldiers, but on them no dependence could be placed;perhaps they would be the first to plunder us. No timewas lost in despatching three messengers: one to theShah's camp, two miles distant, to learn the state ofaffairs; another to Tehran, to purchase ammunition andbring out some fifty carbines and pistols from the Missionstores; and a third was despatched to an Afghan friend,a pensioner of the Indian Government, to send us someof his countrymen to resist the marauders, who wouldcertainly soon make their appearance. In three hoursthirty or forty trusty horsem*n were in our camp, and wewere promised one hundred and fifty before night.

I know not if I ever experienced greater relief thanwhen a note arrived from the Prime Minister, saying thatthe Shah had been only slightly hurt, and that all waswell. His Majesty, just after mounting his horse to proceed on a hunting-excursion, had been attacked in themidst of his guards by four Bābees, who had approachedhim under the pretence of delivering a petition. TheKing had been thrown from his horse, and slightlywounded by a pistol-shot, and was on the point of beingdespatched, when some of his guards, recovering fromtheir stupor, seized the assassins, one only of whom waskilled in the scuffle. The two Missions, English andRussian, immediately proceeded to wait on the Shah, tooffer their congratulations, which were assuredly mostsincere. Notwithstanding his wound, they found hisMajesty seated as usual. He was pale, but looked moreangry than alarmed. The Shah said that such a thinghad never been heard of as the attack he had suffered.In condoling on the event, it was easy, though scarcelyappropriate, to allude to Nadir and to the founder of hisown dynasty; so his Majesty was reminded that occurrences like this were not uncommon in Petersburg, andthat our own gracious Sovereign had not been free fromsuch attempts. The Shah did not, however, seem toderive any consolation from companionship in his danger.

It appeared that a party of Bābees in town had organised a conspiracy, and had held nightly meetings tomature their schemes. These were simple enough. Theirplan was to murder the Shah, sally out, sword in hand,in the midst of the confusion and commotion, seize thegovernment, and then commence the reign of terror andthe reign of the saints on earth. Four of the conspiratorswere chosen to execute the behest of the plotters. Whata fearful state of things had we providentially escapedfrom!

The panic at Shemeroon became general; no one thoughthimself safe unless within the walls of Tehran. Everybush was a Bābee, or concealed one. Shah, ministers,meerzas, soldiers, priests, merchants, all went pell-mellinto Tehran, although a month of the country season stillremained. The Russian Mission fled too, so that not abeing was left in Shemeroon excepting ourselves, nor atent excepting those of our camp. Colonel S— declared he did not think it creditable to take flight andthat he would remain the usual time in his summer-quarters; moreover, if there were any danger, the English Mission would be the last to suffer injury. He waswarned by some Persian friends that perhaps the resultof this "recklessness" would be like that of a similarresolve, made some years ago, when a violent cholerabroke out, and one of the Mission fell a victim to themalady. Still we remained, and no evil followed. Indeedthe measures adopted to repress Bābeeism removed alldanger for the moment, whatever retaliation the Bābeesmay hereafter inflict should their faith ever acquire theascendancy.

A number of the conspirators had been seized, whosefate it was easy to anticipate. The Prime Minister wasreminded that now was the time for a practical display ofthe advance Persia had made in civilisation, and that onwhomsoever death was to be inflicted, it ought to be without the addition of torture. Fear has no mercy. Hisanswer was that this was not a time for trifling; and thatthe punishment, however severe, of the criminals whosought to spread massacre and spoliation throughout thelength and breadth of Persia, was not to be deprecated, orto be included under the designation of torture, whichhad been defined to be the infliction of pain to extort aconfession of guilt.

About thirty persons were put to death, and, as is customary in that sect, or, perhaps, in all new sects, theymet their doom without shrinking. Suleiman Khan, thechief of the conspirators, and two others suffered torturepreviously to execution. The two last were eithercut to pieces, or shot or blown from mortars. Holeswere pierced in various parts of Suleiman Khan's body,into which lighted candles were placed, and allowed toburn down to the flesh, and, while still alive, he wasdivided into two parts with a hatchet. During thesehorrible tortures he is said to have preserved his fortitudeto the last, and to have danced to the place of executionin defiance of his tormentors, and of the agony causedby the burning candles. Among the conspirators was amoolla of some reputation. After the attack on theShah had failed, he had persisted in urging on the accomplishment of the plot. He told the disciples that thework must not be left incomplete, and that he was resolved to bare his arm, and, sword in hand, to attack theShah on his entrance into Tehran; that if they saw himlying as if dead, they were not to believe it; they wereto fight, and he would rise and be among them.

Strange was the device adopted by the Prime Ministerto elude the danger personal to himself of slaying somany fanatical Bābees. Their vengeance was to beapprehended, as about this time many persons were unaccountably murdered in Tehran, who, it was supposed,had been too explicit in the expression of their feelingsagainst Bābeeism. His Excellency resolved to divide theexecution of the victims among the different departmentsof the state; the only person he exempted was himself.First came the Shah, who was entitled to khissās, or legalretaliation, for his wound. To save the dignity of thecrown, the steward of the household, as the Shah's representative, fired the first shot at the conspirator selected ashis victim, and his deputies, the ferashes, completed thework. The Prime Minister's son headed the HomeOffice, and slew another Bābee. Then came the ForeignOffice. The Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, apious, silly man, who spent his time in conning over thetraditions of Mahommed, with averted face made thefirst sword-cut, and then the Under-Secretary of Stateand clerks of the Foreign-Office hewed their victim intopieces. The priesthood, the merchants, the artillery, theinfantry, had each their allotted Bābee. Even the Shah'sadmirable French physician, the late lamented Dr. Cloquet, was invited to show his loyalty by following theexample of the rest of the Court. He excused himself,and pleasantly said he killed too many men professionallyto permit him to increase their number by any voluntaryhomicide on his part.11 The Sedr was reminded thatthese barbarous and unheard-of proceedings were notonly revolting in themselves, but would produce theutmost horror and disgust in Europe. Upon this hebecame very much excited, and asked angrily, "Do youwish the vengeance of all the Bābees to be concentratedupon me alone?"

The following is an extract from the 'Tehran Gazette'of that day, and will serve as a specimen of a Persian"leader:"–

Then follows an account of the attack, which I havealready given in sufficient detail.

No people love jesting and bantering more than thePersians. In Tehran, when any one is installed in office,it is usual for his friends and those under his authority tosend him sheereenee, sweetmeats, as a token of congratulation. When these executions were over, it was saidthat the Shah's meerghazabs had presented sheereeneeto all the ministers of state, as a mark of their admissioninto the brotherhood. The chief executioner at theShah's court is a very important personage. Hateful ashe is to every one, it is curious, I hear, to observe thedeference with which he is treated. As the highest ofthe courtiers may one day fall into his fangs, and his eyesor feet be in jeopardy, they do the utmost to propitiatehim beforehand by flattering civilities, something on theprinciple of the Indians' worship of his infernal majesty.

There was still another victim. This was a youngwoman, the daughter of a moolla in Mazenderan, who,as well as her father, had adopted the tenets of Bāb.The Bābees venerated her as a prophetess; and she wasstyled the Khooret-ool-eyn, which Arabic words aresaid to mean, Pupil of the eye. After the Bābee insurrection had been subdued in the above province, she wasbrought to Tehran and imprisoned, but was well treated.When these executions took place she was strangled.This was a cruel and useless deed.

It was said that the general impression produced onthe people by all this bloodshed was not favourable. Indignation at the attempt on the Shah's life was lost insympathy for the fate of so many sufferers. The common opinion was, that the poor misguided conspirators ofmean condition, whose poverty more than any sentimentof disloyalty or irreligion had enrolled them in the ranksof Bābeeism, might have been spared. It thus appearsthat, even in Persia, a vague undefined feeling of liberality in religion is taking root.

November 2nd.–Tehran was enlivened this month bythe arrival of an Ottoman Embassy, at the head of whichwas a very distinguished person, Ahmed Vefeek Effendi.This gentleman was a most agreeable addition to oursmall society. His conversation, manners, and perfectknowledge of French would enable him to pass for a highbred Frenchman; and I was informed that his talentswere on an equality with his accomplishments. It was aconstant theme of surprise to us all, how a person of hiscapacity could be condemned to the obscurity of so remote a country as Persia; and the only solution to theenigma was found in the well-known intrigues of Constantinople.

I am informed that there is a great contrast betweenthe manners of an Ottoman and a Persian of the higherclasses. Both are perfectly like gentlemen, but in adifferent way. The Osmanli is calm, sedate, polished,perhaps a little effeminate; the Persian is lively, cordial,witty, and amiable; perhaps a little boisterous, for he isstill an eelyat. The Turkish courtier spends his timein roaming up and down the Bosphorus, leading a life ofluxury and ease, never quitting the capital. The Persiancourtier is constantly on horseback, hunting with hissovereign in weather of all kinds, or accompanying himin journeys from one end of Persia to the other.The Osmanli may be more refined; the Iranee is moreoriginal.

One can hardly imagine a grave Osmanli seated at thepiano playing European and Turkish airs; yet one ofthe gentlemen of the Turkish Embassy sometimes did usthis favour, and showed considerable power on the instrument. What would his grandsire say, I sometimesthought, if he could see him? The next step will beemancipation of the women from seclusion, and from thepresent pretence of a veil.

In Persia, for want of more important subjects of contention, trifles assume a magnitude unintelligible inEurope. Samee Effendi, the predecessor of the presentambassador, fought (on paper) two arduous battles, oneabout a pair of shoes, the other concerning a chair.Ahmed Vefeek Effendi is obliged to expend his diplomatic powers in a struggle to display an Ottoman flagover his door, like his colleagues. Great pugnacity anddexterity were arrayed on both sides; and I believe thecontest had not ceased up to the moment we left Persia.Diplomatic life in that country seems made up of thingslike these.

February, 1853.–My husband finding it useless tostruggle against bad health, we resolved to quit Persia atonce, and so avoid the enervating effects of another summer. We had a great deal to arrange before our departure, and Colonel S— had numerous visits to pay.As for me, I had only three or four. The Sedr Azim, orGrand Vezeer's wife, when she heard I was going away,wrote to ask me to breakfast with her on an appointedday. I of course accepted the invitation, and spent apleasant morning in her society. She is such a goodwoman, besides being a remarkably clever and intelligentone, that she is highly esteemed and respected. TheSedr Azim treats her as a European husband treatshis wife; and she has no rivals in her anderoon. Thedéjeûner was spread on a table, and served on handsome porcelain, with knives and forks for all theparty. I observed she and a friend of hers who satbeside me were very much embarrassed by these gastronomic implements, so I begged they would put them aside.They instantly adopted my suggestion, and tore off greatpieces of a savoury stewed lamb, and swallowed handfulsof rice which had been cooked in fat. They took theprecaution of squeezing a portion of the fat out of itwith their fingers, before eating it. Wishing to show meparticular attention, the Khanum tore off a delicate morsel,and with her own hands put it into my mouth. Therewere six or seven of her children seated round the table,fine healthy boys and girls, who ate like Europeanswithout any difficulty, and two of the boys spoke French.When the ladies had washed their hands and smoked theirkalleoons, we went to look at the house and garden. It wasa fine mansion, built in the usual fashion of the country, ofcourts leading into other courts. All the rooms were onthe ground-floor; but underneath there were immenseapartments, nearly dark, where the family lived in warmweather. All the good Tehran houses have thesezeerzemeens, as they are called. The floor of the roomwhere she received me was covered with fine Cashmeershawls; and there were cushions embroidered with gold,and others covered with gold brocade, placed against thewall all around the room. The children ran about laughing and playing, just like English young folks. They allseemed very happy and gay, more so than any family Ihad seen in Tehran. The Sedr Azim's wife is a Mazenderanee, of the tribe of Nooree, and a first cousin of herhusband, who, as I said before, always calls her "myuncle's daughter."

¹¹ The fate of this gentleman was most melancholy. Returning oneevening from attending on the Shah, he called for a glass of wine.His servant, an Armenian, brought him a bottle of liquor, of whichhe drank a glass, and only then discovered that it was a deadly poison.He died in great agony ten days afterwards. He was highly valuedamong all classes.

CHAPTER XIX.

Quit Tehran – Journey to Tabreez – Lake of Ooroomeya – Farewell to Persia – Oppression of the Armenians by the Koords – Our lodgings in Turkish Armenia – Erzeroom – Road and journey from Erzeroom to Trebizond – Pass of Kara Kappan – Jevezlik – Trebizond – Quarantine – Lazes – Constantinople.

Tabreez, March 21st. 1853.–ON the 1st of this monthwe left Tehran, my mind full of anxiety and care. It wasan arduous undertaking, with an invalid and with threeyoung children, to commence a journey of 1000 miles toTrebizond, But there was no resource; and there isalways consolation in remembering "la journée sera dure,mais elle se passera." To have gone by Bagdad wouldhave brought us into the heats of India. The Caucasus wasstill covered with snow; and to an invalid the fatigue andprivation of Russian travelling are excessive. There wasconsequently no choice. This is one of the most disagreeable circ*mstances incidental to a residence in Persia.Once established in that country, it is nearly impossible toget out of it. The distance is so great, and the mode oftravelling necessarily so slow, one must be content toundergo either the heat of the torrid zone or the cold ofSiberia, unless by leaving Tehran in spring, and choosingthe road by Erzeroom, or in autumn, and then adoptingthe circuitous route of Bagdad and India.

Three takhterewans contained our party, in which weslowly wended our way to Tabreez, sometimes on horseback for an hour or two, to enjoy the fresh air, which ina takht one does not get much of. A minister leaving hispost is a different person from one proceeding to the placeof his diplomatic functions; yet we found no change inpoliteness, cordiality, and attention. The tea and sugar,it is true, no longer appeared at each station; but suchthings are mere matters of form.

We reached Tabreez yesterday after a more agreeablejourney than was to be anticipated. The weather wasdelightful, though cold, as we ascended to Azerbijan.After a few days' rest we intend to continue our journeyto Erzeroom, where we shall again take some repose.

Erzeroom, April 20th.–We are to-morrow to resumeour journey to Trebizond; that much wished-for port,where we shall have done with this protracted and reallytoilsome journey. This rest was much required by all ourparty; and we enjoyed the clean boarded floors and whitewashed walls of the small house in which we lodge, andwhich seems a palace after the shelters where we havepassed our nights during the preceding week. I must takeup my journey, however, from our last halting-place,Tabreez, which we left on the 30th of March.

Khoee was the first town of importance after Tabreez.On our way to it we passed close to the Lake of Ooroomeya, otherwise called Shahee. On ascending the highpass leading to Khoee the lake lay at our feet. We hada fine view over the expanse of that silent water, the DeadSea of Persia, which contains no living thing. The islandsof the lake, the mountains of Maragha, those of the MikreeKoords at the south of the lake near the Jaghataï, part ofthe district of Ooroomeya with the Koordistan mountainsbehind it, revealed themselves with the rising sun. It wasa fine panorama. We only stayed to rest and breakfastat Khoee, that important and defenceless city, open andready to be seized upon by any invader; but pressed on tothe next stage. Three days more brought us to thefamous plains of Chalderān, the scene of a great battlebetween Shah Ismaël Seffi and Sultan Selim, in which theformer, after the display of extraordinary prowess, wasdefeated. It was here the Shah cut with his sword thechain with which the Turkish guns were linked. Thesucceeding day brought us to Awajik, the frontier village of Persia. The next day we crossed the celebratedpass of Kazlee Gool, which, however, after what I hadbeheld in Mazenderan, was nothing. Here is the boundary between Persia and Turkey; and as guns cross thepass constantly, the road ranks among the tolerably good.Bayazeed lay two hours to the right, perched among crags,which we were neither in the mood nor in the plight toexplore.

Here, then, we bade farewell, a long farewell–thatword of gloom–to Iran. The retrospect of my sojournin that land is mingled with various feelings. It is agreeable now to look back, to have made the journey, and tohave resided in a world so different from our own; and,notwithstanding my pleasure at the thought of once moreruturning to Europe, yet I felt a kind of pang as I returned the salutes of the Mehmendar and his suite, anda sense of loneliness as we pursued our bleak trackthrough Turkish Armenia, a detestable land, made so bymisrule. Mr. Morier, in quitting Persia, says that hissensations were exactly those expressed by Tournefortwhen he determined to return to France; and I haveonly to add, that, notwithstanding the momentary feelingof uneasiness, my sensations were exactly those of Mr.Morier. He goes on to say that the people are false, thesoil is dreary, and disease is in the climate.

Both sides of the frontier present a direful aspect ofdesolation. The country is filled with various tribes ofnomadic Koords, Hyderanlee, Zeelān, Meelān, Jellālee,and others, who plunder caravans and travellers wheneverthere is impunity, and oppress the villagers, chieflyArmenian, at all times. One day they declare themselvesthe subjects of Turkey, and the next of Persia, to screenthemselves from the punishment their crimes deserve.The face of the country shows the insecurity caused bytheir presence. The villages are few, and in a state ofmiserable poverty, notwithstanding the rich well-wateredplains in which they are situated. The cold is so intensein this part of Turkey and Persia as to prevent the Koordsfrom passing the winter in their tents. Those who cannot migrate disperse in small parties in the Armenianvillages, which they not only insist on sharing with the inhabitants, but force these poverty-stricken Armenians tosupply them with forage for the sustenance of their numerous flocks and herds.

Let the reformers of Turkey ponder on this crying evil,and save the poor Armenians from the oppressions of thewicked Koords. The other grievance already mentioned,of Mussulman travellers making Armenian villages thespecial places of rest, for the purpose of indulging morefreely in oppression and caprice, has already been mentioned. We ourselves had practical experience of thispropensity. Our Turkish mehmander invariably endeavoured, until resisted, to select an Armenian village forour nightly halt; and when resting in a Mussulman village, he was equally solicitous to expel Armenians fromtheir houses for our accommodation. This question was asubject of almost daily remonstrance and reproof; buthabit had made the mehmander inveterate in this matter.He promised often and performed seldom, as happensamong the Osmanlis. A Georgian proverb says, "Hewho trusts to a Turk, leans on a wave."

Aghree Dagh, or Ararat–our old acquaintance inRussian Armenia–was once more our great landmark. Itlay on our right hand, and seemed quite close. I think,however, it did not look so grand as on the Russian side;owing perhaps to the greater height of the ground fromwhich we were gazing at it.

We plodded our weary way through Turkish Armenia.This was the most disagreeable part of my Eastern experience. The annoyance arose from the dreadful accommodation at night, which no words, at least none that Ican command, could describe. The villages in Armeniaare scarcely visible at a short distance, the roofs of thehouses being hardly raised above the adjacent ground; sothat sometimes one walks over a house, and is in danger ofsinking through the roof before becoming aware that it is ahuman habitation. In that romantic history, the retreatof the Ten Thousand Greeks, this peculiarity is alluded to.The cause must be the intense severity of the climate.The interior of these houses is completely destitute of evenan approach to comfort; though they certainly fulfil theobject sought, that of obtaining warmth. They consist ofstables of vast extent, sunk under ground, and filled withbuffaloes, cows, sheep, horses, poultry; here the familylive, and here too we lived. There were no windows; andthe only outlets from these houses are the door and a holein the roof. The atmosphere in the interior may be conceived, and so too may the misery of the nights passedin these abodes. We were provided with tents; butthe cold was far too great to admit of our usingthem. These stables generally contained a sakkoo, onwhich the family resided. This is the platform I havealready alluded to, raised two or three feet above the ground. Sometimes the villages were so small and sopoor as not to possess even one of these spacious stables;on which occasions, leaving the single room to our children, we used to satisfy ourselves with the accommodationof the doorway. Altogether it was a time of hardshipand trial; for sickness was augmented, and comforts haddecreased. With the exception of the Pass of Dehar,the road was fortunately level and good. No incidentsmarked the journey; the inhabitants of the villages werecivil and obliging, and the Koords had not approachedthese high grounds, where no pasture was yet to be foundfor their flocks and herds. We consequently were freefrom alarm on their account. A few years ago wholecaravans used to be swept away by these banditti; but oflate the improved relations between Persia and Turkeyhave rendered travelling by this road an undertaking ofless risk than formerly. Nevertheless, the danger, greatas it sometimes was, from Koords, snow, and cold, couldnot induce merchants or muleteers to abandon this roadand adopt the safer and more commodious route throughGeorgia and Russian Armenia.

I had become so accustomed to fine mountain sceneryas to be comparatively indifferent to it; and I had learnedto be far more anxious about good roads than good views.Still it was impossible not to be impressed by the wildgrandeur of the scenes around us. Ararat long remainedin sight and was succeeded by the steep and dark rangeseparating us from Kars; then came the remarkable peakof Koosehdagh. At Hassan Kalla, one stage from Erzeroom, we had a respite from subterraneous, pestiferousstables. This is a picturesque town, with a castle perchedon a high steep rock overhanging it. It is said that thistown, or Erzeroom, was the boundary of the RomanEmpire. From Berwick to Hassan Kalla--a goodlykingdom! My husband found here in the governor anold friend, who insisted on vacating his house for us.

Here, in Erzeroom, we feel ourselves to be approachingEurope; a large European society, as it seemed to us,being established in that town. There are consuls fromFrance, England, and Russia, with their families, missionaries from America, besides numerous Europeans in theservice of the Porte. The American missionaries, at thehead of whom was the Rev. Mr. Peabody, have been mostkind in lending us this comfortable house during our stayin this city.

Erzeroom is a large town, dirtier and more disagreeable, I think, than. even a Persian city; though it has theadvantage of not being built of sun-dried brown bricks,and of the houses having windows to the street. Beingsituated at the extremity of an immense plain, on a hill atthe foot of a range of mountains, it makes a strikingappearance from a distance, with its castle and numerousminarets and mosques. It winter it must be one of thebleakest and most desolate places in Asia. My husbandpassed nearly two years here, and has seen a heavysnow-shower in July. Snow falls in November, and doesnot disappear from the plains until the middle of April.The climate is so desperate that the inhabitants are reducedto designate a cabbage-field as "the garden;" there beingno other known throughout the land. Add to this six melancholy poplars, and behold the extent of the sylvan andhorticultural productions of Erzeroom. The thermometerfalls to 27° below zero, Fahrenheit; and nevertheless wheatand barley are produced in abundance in the ample plainor valley below. The inhabitants are notorious for theirignorance and fanaticism. A few years ago a tumult wasexcited by some disagreement between a party of Persiansand Turks. The mob rose in wrath, and resolved to exterminate the whole of the Persian population. They marchedto the house of the Persian commissioner, the colleague ofSir W. Williams, and prepared to assault it. Had theysucceeded in gaining an entrance, no doubt all the inmateswould have been massacred. Sad to say, to appease thecraving fury of the vile multitude, the commissioner thrustforth one of his followers–a hapless traveller, I believe.In a moment he was hacked to pieces. In the meanwhilethe Turkish authorities and troops, with Sir W. Williamsand General Tchernitchoff, the Russian commissioner,appeared in time to save the remainder.

Trebizond, May 7th.–When we left Erzeroom, on the21st of April, we felt sure that seven marches, as they arecalled, would have brought us to this place. Sudden andserious illness interfered, and we only reached Trebizondon the 4th of this month.

We were glad to quit dreary Erzeroom, and for the firsttwo days got on very well; the road was good, and we had"superior" stables to sleep in. A few miles from thetown we crossed the Euphrates, as the Kara Soo is honouredby being designated; though the other and more importantbranch, under the name of Morad, rises within some milesof Bayazeed. It was curious to look at this rivulet, andthen think of the mighty Shattool Arab at Bussora. Attwenty miles from Erzeroom we entered the mountains bythe pass of Khoosha Poongar. I may say that from henceto Trebizond, a distance of about 150 miles, it was nothingbut a succession of mountain upon mountain, increasingdaily in size and ruggedness, excepting in the vicinity ofBaiboort, on the Choorook Soo river, where there was ashort respite. Surveyed from the top of one mountain,the whole country looked like a gigantic rough sea, themountain peaks seeming to be monstrous waves. The toil oftravelling in takhterewans in these elevated regions maybe conceived, as well as the uncomfortable sensations ofpassing in that vehicle through precipitous paths overhanging yawning gulfs. I could sometimes see, on suchoccasions, the precipice beneath, and would have wished toquit the takht, but it was too late, as to stop would onlyincrease the danger. The accommodations became worseand worse, and we began to regret the stables of the lowertracts, which at least were dry. Here the houses werebuilt of mud and loose stones, admitting such damp asproduced most acute illness, of which the issue was doubtful, and which obliged us to stop in a lonely village forfour days. Misled by the muleteers, who thought only ofthe shortest road to their destination, we endeavoured,though now only early spring, to reach Trebizond by thesummer road. This led us over the toilsome but magnificent pass of Kara Kapan. There was no danger, butthe fatigue was excessive. Contrary to our expectations,the path was covered with deep snow, which forced us toquit the takhts, and wade more than ankle-deep throughit for long distances. In our circ*mstances this necessity was a sore trial. But I learned on this journey thatneither children nor invalids know how much fatigue andprivation they can endure until they are under compulsion.We were fourteen hours on the road that day; and as wehad expected to arrive at the summit at about three o'clock,we had not brought any provisions with us. The childrenbecame very hungry, and eagerly grasped at some stalebread one of the servants had in his pocket. At lengthwe reached the top, and found there four or five little hutswhich had not been occupied since the preceding autumn,and were still damp with the winter's snow. Glad wewere, nevertheless, to enter them, and warm ourselves atthe blazing pine-wood the servants had collected.

Next morning early we prepared to descend from bleakwinter's snow into sunny, smiling spring. Only one morestage remained to Trebizond, and we were able to appreciate the glorious prospect before us fully. The road wasbroad and safe; it wound through a thick wood of finetrees, intermingled, as we descended, with shrubs, evergreens, and creeping plants. The rhododendron and myrtlewere in full blow, and the number of wild flowers wassurprising. A residence of some years in barren Persiacontributes in no small degree to the enjoyment of a scenelike this. At the bottom of the pass we reached our station, Jevizlik, than which a more lovely spot cannot beconceived. Two streams rush through the valley, and,uniting close to Jevizlik, fall into the sea near Trebizond.A most romantic-looking castle, perched on a steep rock,overlooks the stream, and guards the pass. Woods andverdure clothe the hills and mountains to the top, intermingled with cultivated lands, villages, and detachedfarm-houses. If the sea were visible, I question if theroad from Leghorn to Genoa would afford a finer sight.The next day we reached Trebizond. This city was notvisible until we were within two or three miles of it.Suddenly, on getting round a mountain which had intercepted the view, it lay below at our feet like a beautifulpanorama. The sea looked like an old friend, and wasdotted with ships and steamboats. I felt that our toilswere over, and as if we were already in Europe. Thisthriving town rises from the sea up the face of the hill, notunlike Genoa. Compared with the Persian cities and theTurkish towns I had seen, it was neatness itself. On theeast of the town are the craggy rocks of Boz Teppeh; onthe west is the ancient castle; and to the south are rangesof wooded hills, rising in height as they successively recede.English commerce and steam have raised Trebizond to itspresent flourishing state, by the vast quantities of Englishmanufactures which from hence are conveyed to Persia,for which Bushir and Bagdad had been the previousroutes. It is strange that a Persian Armenian shouldhave been the first to discover the convenience of this road.But Armenians have a genius for commerce, thoughseldom of an enterprising kind. This gentleman, whosename was Sittik Khan, conveyed, twenty-four years ago,a cargo of merchandise belonging to himself, or to hisfriends in England, through all the perils, at that timevery serious, from the Koordish marauders; and eachsucceeding year has augmented the number and the valueof the caravans.

We are undergoing here the ordeal of a ten days'quarantine, to remind us, I suppose, that we are on thethreshold of Europe. If we were more comfortably lodged,the repose after our harassing journey would be rather aluxury than otherwise.

I hear the Turk of Trebizond is a very different personfrom the genuine Osmanli. The distinction is so visibleand so great, as to create a strong belief of his being aGreek in disguise–the descendant, in short, of the oldGreek population. Though affecting to be real Osmanlis,that is, the offspring of the Turkish invaders, collectedtogether by the house of Osman, they are by the lattercalled Lāz, that being the name of the population betweenTrebizond, Batoon, and Gooriel. I am informed thatthe Lāz are probably allied in race with the Mingreliansand Imeretians, to whom they are said to bear a resemblance in dialect. Among the real Turks their reputationis low, to be called a Lāz being held as a term of reproachequivalent to an imputation of a want of faith, honour, orreligion. A Lāz, as a Turkish proverb says, will at anytime "kill a man for an onion."

There cannot be a greater contrast than that between the"Trebizanli" Lāz, or Greek, and the lazy fanatic Turkof Erzeroom, laden with conceit and ignorance. Thenative of Trebizond is said to be full of activity andenergy; he is cheerful and lively; unlike everythingTurkish, he puts his gun on his shoulder and trudges overthe mountains in quest of game. Still more curious andun-Turkish, you meet him on Friday with a party of hiscomrades, sauntering amid the beautiful environs of hisnative city, accompanied by a fiddler and singer, withwhom he does not disdain to join in chorus. It is suspected that on these occasions the merrymakers are supported by something which gives inspiration to the fiddleand song.

Constantinople, June 2nd.–In due time, or rather afterdue time, we reached Istambol. There are two companies of steamboats between Trebizond and Constantinople, Austrian and English, and considerable rivalryexists between them. At one time they took deck passengers for nothing, and, they say, treated them to a dishof pillao besides; but I cannot vouch for the truth of thelatter part of the story. Our large party was a prize, andby some Levantine cleverness we were booked in a crazyEnglish boat. The deck was so entirely covered withdeck passengers, that for five days we could never leavethe close cabin. I do not know what would have becomeof us if there had been a storm, for the paddles hardlymoved. To this day I cannot think of it without a feelingof resentment towards all concerned in putting us on board.We were met in the harbour of Constantinople by Lieutenant Glascott, of the Royal Navy, attached to the Perso-Turkish Frontier Commission, who kindly brought to meetus two nice caiques, and had carriages ready for us on theshore to take us to the hotel.

Whoever has seen Constantinople will pardon the cupidity of the Emperor Nicholas. It is created for universal empire, and one does not wonder the Romanstransferred their capital to this magnificent site. Atraveller from Persia sees Constantinople under a differentaspect from one coming from the West. To me everything was couleur de rose, and Pera had all the effect of aEuropean town. The shop-windows–the hairdressers–the ladies in their wonderfully small French bonnets andwith their faces uncovered–the Osmanli women, too, withtheir gauze veils and frightful costume, the former covering without concealing the lips–the strange-looking cabsin the streets–all was new and delightful to me.

We brought with us to Constantinople, all the way fromTehran, two Persian men-servants and a Persian nurse.One of the former was engaged to be married to thenurse, who was a widow, on their return to Tehran. Nextdoor to the hotel where we resided lived a family ofPerotes, among whom were several young ladies remarkably well looking. They spent several hours daily inwalking up and down before their door, without bonnetsor shawls, gaily attired in nicely fitting dresses. Theycompletely absorbed and bewildered our two Persians,who devoted the day to gazing on these houris, and inlamenting they could not take wives like these back toPersia. The nurse was forgotten, and she became excessively angry, abused her betrothed, and said she couldnever bestow another thought on such a fool as he provedhimself to be.

We had the ill luck to find the principal hotel completely full, so that we were obliged to content ourselveswith one not of equal excellence. We were, I doubt not,troublesome guests, and an invalid cuisine requires care.I am sure we should have fared very badly had it not beenfor the kindness of Her Majesty's Ambassador. I shallalways preserve a grateful recollection of Lord Stratford'smany kindnesses during a month's residence at Constantinople.

One of the most remarkable sights in the streets ofConstantinople is the appearance of the Sisters of Charity.It is strange to see in the midst of the Turkish town theirwell-known dress, recalling to mind the streets of Paris.Not only do they pass through the crowd unmolested inthe performance of their duties, but are even treated withconsideration and respect. Two large establishments ofthese nuns have been formed in Galata and Pera. Withthe exception of one or two Irishwomen, these nuns areall natives of France. I paid a visit to one of the former,who showed me over the fine hospital, where sick strangersare admitted without regard to creed or country.

Here I shall conclude. The journey home, by Maltaand Marseilles, is an everyday occurrence, and my joy atreturning would have been complete but for the death ofour faithful terrier, Crab. I shall not attempt to say howthis event embittered everything, for it is uninterestingto all, and by some would not be understood.

ADDITIONAL NOTES.

NOTE (A.). Page 39.
RUSSIAN MILITARY INFLUENCE IN THE EAST.

General Macintosh's plan for conducting the siege of Sebastopol – Our share in its fall – Suggestion for making military service compulsory – Our next battle-field against Russia: prospects if in Georgia – Inactivity of Schamil and the mountain tribes during the late war – The Russian army in Georgia, its pay and mortality – Caucasian tribes – Power of Russia south of the Caucasus.

EUPATORIA, Sebastopol, Kaffa, Kertch! These memorablenames excite recollections too vivid to leave them withoutdevoting a few reflections to the theatre of so many momentous deeds. True, though trite, it is easy to be wiseafter the event; yet who can help regretting that a differentplan was not followed in the subjugation of Sebastopol?

There was, however, one man who was wise before theevent. Major-General Macintosh, who now commands theforces in the Ionian Islands, clearly laid down the principle at the commencement of the siege, if not before it,that the mode of conducting an attack against Sebastopolwas by landing an army at Kertch, and, after beating theenemy in the open field, to out off the communication withPerekop, and then commence the siege at full leisure, withall the appliances of war. General Macintosh's book is notbefore me, but this is the substance of his plan, which hedevelops in considerable detail, and with the intelligenceof a man who knows his profession, and has been on theground.

Sebastopol has, however, fallen, and the English armyhas earned a share, small or great, of the reputation ofthat feat. We cannot disguise from ourselves that wewere eclipsed by the overwhelming numerical superiority of the French. Some among us find consolationby deluding themselves with the assurance that we are nota military nation, and should not pretend to vie with apeople essentially martial, like our Gallic neighbours.Most bitter consolation! With a European population, thecolonies being included, little inferior to that of France,we are driven to the resource of hiring mercenaries fromevery land, heedless of the fate of those nations who havesought to defend their soil or their interests by the arms offoreign levies.

When wealth and luxury have taken such root, that anarmy can no longer be obtained by voluntary recruitmentadequate to maintain the honour and the interests of anempire, or secure respect from friend and foe, its dignityand safety combine in urging the community to a sacrifice;the state of war should be the signal for making every manthroughout the land fit for military service availablewherever necessary.

In these days, when the voice of the people is so potent,we may feel assured that no war can be undertaken frommere wantonness, or unless the interests of the nation absolutely require it.

When war is unavoidable, there seems no good reasonwhy the person as well as the purse should not be madeavailable for the general welfare. A law of this kind,passed with the consent of the nation–the Crown, thearistocracy, and the people–is no greater infringementon the liberty of the subject in the one case than in theother.

The economy to the State would be great. The manwhose lot it was to take his place in the ranks of the armyfor a limited space would not require to be bribed by highbounties, or high pay, or pampered with high feeding; anassurance would thus be given for the maintenance of alarge force during war.

The "Peace party" ought to hail a measure of this kind,for no stronger guarantee could be given for peace. Sucha law, added to the wealth of England, would render herinvincible if attacked, and make other nations slow to provoke her enmity.

But the day for this act of legislation has not yet come.Still, who can tell how soon it may force itself on the consideration of the nation with an irresistible pressure?

Peace has, however, been proclaimed–a peace whichRussia has been in such haste to conclude that suspicion isaroused whether she intends it to be permanent. Will thenext battle-field be the Crimea, or Bessarabia, or Georgia?

It is hazardous to offer a prediction of the result of warlike operations in a remote country, where chance, anunskilful commander, the interception of a convoy, maydefeat the most adroit combinations. Yet, should theGeorgian provinces be the scene of our next campaignagainst Russia, there appears a fair chance of success forour arms. It would scarcely seem a sound calculationto reckon on efficient aid from the Christian populationof those provinces; they appear, compared with otherAsiatic states, to be fairly governed, or at all eventswith an absence of violence and oppression. They partake, without molestation, of the material enjoyments oflife; unlike their co-religionists in Persia, if not in Turkey,their property is safe from sequestration; and they arefrom time to time admitted to high military employment.Bagration, of the days of 1812, was a Georgian; and Bebutoff, the governor of Tiflis, is an Armenian. The wantof that liberty of speech so cherished by Asiatics, and themore than occasional corruption of Russian authorities, aretheir chief grievances. An inroad of Turks, therefore,backed though it may be by the name and reputation ofEngland and France, will have little allurement for peoplein their condition, who, from similarity of religion, hardlyfeel their conquerors to be foreigners. But it is in all likelihood otherwise as to the Mussulman population of theTranscaucasian districts. They can scarcely yet have forgotten the real independence of their government whennominally subject to Persia and Turkey. They have notamalgamated with the Russians. Though Sheahs, andtherefore not friendly to the followers of Omar, it seemstolerably certain that the prospect of independence and ofcasting off the Christian yoke would make them smothersectarian rivalry, and, remembering only their commonMahommedanism, they would welcome the Ottoman flag,particularly in conjunction with the forces of France andEngland.

It is impossible to avoid being struck with the little thathas been done, during the war just terminated, by Shamil,the Lezghees, the Circassians, and other mountain tribes,in molesting the Russians in the Caucasus, and, above all, inharassing, if not interrupting, their communications throughits defiles. After the feats we have formerly read of thedestruction of various Russian corps, general after generaldriven back with slaughter, to any one who has beheld theformidable defile of Dariel, a bold stroke against the Russians, conducted by a master head and hand like Shamil's,would seem no impossibility. Want of unity of purpose,the interests of to-day overruling those of to-morrow, orlevity and corruption, are the best explanation of greathopes being disappointed, and of great opportunities beingturned to little account.

Being on the subject of Georgia, perhaps it may gratifythe reader to receive some additional information respecting that country. An English traveller having communicated to me some authentic particulars as to the population, both Christian and Mahommedan, as well of thatprovince as of the Caucasian regions in general, I shallproceed to repeat it.

NOTE (B.). Page 67.
THE RUINED CITY OF ANI.

Ancient history of Armenia – Excursion to, and description of, Ani – Account of the fortress of Gumri – Advantage of the war to the Turks – Oppression of Armenians by Mahommedans.

THOUGH situated almost on the high road between Erzeroom and Tiflis, as well as between the latter city and Tabreez, few travellers take the trouble of stepping aside from the beaten track to view this ancient capital of the Armenians, for, scattered and wandering as they now are over the face of the earth, like Jews and gipsies, the Armenians once had a capital. They pretend that their progenitor Haïk, the great-grandson of Japhet, came from the land of Shinar to escape from the tyranny of the Mighty Hunter before the Lord, and established himself west of Van. His successors transferred the residence of the Armenian monarchs to the banks of the Arras, where it continued for eighteen centuries. From one of these, named Aram, distinguished for his heroic exploits, is derived the appellation by which the tribe is now known, although not recognised by the Armenians themselves, who adopt the name of their founder, Haïk. Armenia was subdued by Shameram (Semiramis), who built a city after her own name, Shemiramgerd, now Van. Subsequently the Armenian nation aided the Medes in their revolt against Sardanapalus. At length the Macedonian Alexander extinguished the Armenian monarchy, of which the dynasty of Haïk had held uninterrupted possession for so many centuries.

The Seleucidæ having been overthrown by the Parthian invaders of Persia, the latter established in that country a powerful and independent race of Parthian kings. Arsaces the Great, grandson of the founder of the Parthian empire of the same name, placed his brother Valarsaces on the throne of Armenia B.C. 150, and under this branch of the Arsacidæ, which lasted nearly five hundred years, the Armenians attained greater prosperity, and reached a higher rank in the scale of nations, than they had ever before enjoyed. The whole country was overrun by Antony B.C. 34, in his Parthian wars, which it is conjectured led him to the neighbourhood of Tabreez. When the Sassanees mounted the throne of Persia in 226, the Romans placed Tiridates on the throne of Armenia, and then it was that St. Gregory, a descendant of the Royal Arsacidæ, converted the king and his court. Armenia was rent into factions during the wars of the Romans and the Sassanians, till at length, near the middle of the fifth century, these two powers made a formal division of the country. The fire-worshipping Sassanians spared no effort to convert the Armenians to their faith. The country was desolated byPersian armies, but persecution and torture failed to overthrow Christianity in Armenia. The Magian worshiphaving been extinguished by the followers of the Koran, forseventy years Armenia was the field of contention betweenthe Mussulmans and the rival power of Constantinople, tillat length the supremacy of the former was established.Not long afterwards, by a strange change of policy, thecaliphs founded a dynasty of native tributary sovereigns,who during 160 years filled the throne of Armenia. Thenoble family of the Pakradians, of very ancient Jewishdescent, was the source from which these monarchs werederived. Many smaller Pakradian chiefs formed minorsemi-independent principalities; but in the middle of theeleventh century the Seljookee Toorks burst into Armeniaheaded by their famous chiefs Toghrul and Alp Arselān,marking their track by devastation and massacre.

The latter monarch, one of the greatest of the Seljookees,was afterwards slain on his throne by an assassin. Themurderer advanced towards his victim, who, confiding inhis skill as an archer, refused the aid of his guards. Hemissed his aim and lost his life. He was buried in the cityof Merve, to the north of Meshed, towards the Oxus. Onhis tomb were inscribed the following words, dictated byhimself shortly before his death:–"Oh! ye who havebeheld the glory of Alp Arselān exalted to the heavens,come to Merve, and you will see it buried in the dust."Alp Arselān in A.D. 1063 took and pillaged Ani, the capitalof the Pakradian Armenian kings, with such slaughter thatthe streets were blocked up with bodies. Ani then fell intothe hands of the Koords, from whom it was wrested by thekings of Georgia, then at the height of their power. Thismay be considered the termination of Armenian independence and separate existence in this part of Asia. TheMoghuls and Timour completed the desolation caused by theSeljookees. The population of Armenia is scanty, but thewonder is it has not been annihilated. Its geographicalposition made it the battle-field of innumerable nations,beginning with the Assyrians and ending with the Russians.It was not from massacre and the other evils of war alonethat Armenia suffered. The conquerors frequently forceda large share of the population from their homes: thousandswere carried to Tartary and Egypt; but the chief devastator was Shah Abbas the Great, of the house of Seffi, who,to make Armenia an intrenchment against Turkey, converted it into a desert. The inhabitants were collected inthe plains of Ararat, and driven like cattle across the Arrasto Ispahan and other parts of Persia.

The tenacity of the Armenian character under all theirafflictions excites admiration. Throughout the woes whichbarbarism, fanaticism, and violence could inflict on thesedevoted Christians, they have clung unflinchingly to theirreligion and to their language. The same language isspoken by the Armenians throughout the world, and, withthe exception of those attached to the Church of Rome,they all maintain the same dogmas of faith.

Happening in the year 1840 to be residing at Erzeroom,I felt a strong desire to see the last remnant of Armenianregal grandeur, by undertaking an excursion to Ani, incompany with my friend Dr. Riack, of Her Majesty's Mission in Persia. With a very light equipment of clothesand bedding, and a good supply of tea and sugar, that bestresource where hard continued riding is to be endured, orheat or cold to be borne, we set forth on post-horsesattended by one servant each. Wishing for variety tomake a circuit, we went to the north-east for about 15 miles,and crossed a small rivulet which is entitled to be honouredwith the name of Euphrates, as it proceeds from somefountains in the neighbourhood, from which springs onebranch of that river. I had on a previous occasion seenthese fountains, which take their rise in a small basin atthe summit of very high mountains. There are several ofthese springs, some among them sending forth with greatviolence a volume of water nearly a foot in diameter andthree or four feet in height. Our road continued over highmountains into the beautiful valley of Tortoom, through themidst of which runs a small river crowded on both sideswith luxuriant villages surrounded with fruit-trees. Thevalley is terminated by a charming lake six miles long,encompassed by precipitous mountains which reach thewater's edge, through a chasm of which the waters of thelake find an exit and form a splendid waterfall.

From Tortoom we turned to the north, our road, orrather path, still continuing over high mountains diversified with fertile vales, while to the west lay stillhigher and more rugged mountains, separating us fromBatoum and the Black Sea. We reached the town ofOltee, situated in a beautiful valley of the same name: overhanging the town is a high rock, with a very remarkableand ancient-looking castle at its summit, of which the onlything pretended to be known was, that it had been erectedby the Venidik or the Genevees; it more probably was thefastness of one of the extinct race of the Delli Beys, whodefied the Porte in the days of its weakness, and madeplunder their occupation. Another day's hard ridingbrought us to Kars, twenty miles being occupied in ascending and descending very high mountains.

This is a poor though picturesque-looking town, containing, it is said, 1500 families, of which only twenty wereArmenians, the Russians having carried off no less than600 families of that race at the close of the last war. Thecitadel is placed on a high steep rock which completelyoverlooks the town, but the whole is commanded by a ridgeof hills within cannon-range of the citadel. It was here,we were told, Prince Paskewitch erected his batteries at thecapture of Kars during the last war. On the next occasionthe besiegers found this ridge occupied: Sir W. Williamswas too skilful a soldier to leave so important a post to theenemy. He fortified the ridge, and has gained a name andreputation not second to any in the present war.

The succeeding day we rode twenty-six miles over anundulating country to Ani.

This venerable relic is situated on the bank of a smallstream, called Arpa Chaee, or Barley River, which separatesTurkey from Russia. On approaching the ruins we wereastonished to perceive the walls in as perfect a state as ifthey had been recently erected. These walls are double,and are of great height and thickness, with enormous towersat close intervals, all constructed of a reddish stone, cutin large blocks with the utmost regularity, and closelycemented. The towers are round and may be sixty feetin height. The entire structure, both walls and towers, isin such excellent preservation, that comparatively littlerepair or expense would be required to make them serviceable; I have seen nothing like them in Turkey orPersia. We observed that the gates of the two walls werenot built opposite to each other, with the object no doubt ofexposing an assaulting party to greater loss in proceedingfrom the outer to the inner gate. The site seems to havebeen admirably chosen for strength and purposes of defence.The city was situated on a tongue of land, protected on theeast and south by the enormous and exceedingly steepravine through which flows the Arpa Chaee, and on thewest by another ravine of similar proportions, which joinsthe above stream. These ravines may be 40 yards wideand 20 yards deep. The north is the only side exposed toassault, and this is defended in the manner described:even the ravines have been strengthened by a strong parapet,which runs the whole length of the faces towards the ArpaChaee and the ravine to the west. The space inside the wallsmust have been very confined, and could not have admittedof a large population. Five hundred yards was the lengthwe assigned by estimation to each face of the ravines:perhaps this was the royal fortress, and that the mass of thepopulation resided beyond the walls. The number of hillocks outside the gates, covering perhaps the fragments ofa city now lost to sight, gives colour to this conjecture; butif it were thus, what a vision does it open of the wealthand power of the Pakradian monarchs, who could erect afortress of such dimensions for their own special security.

In gazing at the ponderous walls and deep ravinesenveloping Ani, one is perplexed in reflecting by what contrivance could a horde of barbarians, like the SeljookeeToorks in 1060, surmount all these defences, and capturesuch formidable bulwarks. Treason or famine seems theonly mode of opening these gates in the then state of thescience of conducting sieges.

On passing the gates one is struck with awe on perceiving that the city does not contain a single inhabitant. Allis silence and desolation. The entire space is covered withhillocks, by which the former habitations, and even the outline of the streets, could in many places be traced. At thesouthern extremity of the enclosure is a high mound, whichis called the citadel, crowned with extensive ruins. Abridge over the Arpa Chaee, of which the remains are stillin existence, connected the citadel with its left bank.Near this spot, in the stream, is a very rugged rock onwhich is built a castle called "Qiz Qallasee," the Maidenor Maiden's Castle, a name almost invariably given inPersia to all castles in defiles and commanding passes.

Besides the citadel the ruins consist of an edifice of greatsize, in the north-west angle, which now receives thedenomination of the "Palace." There are also two highcolumns, shaped like minarets, but of great size, which mayhave been towers for military purposes. Three churchescomplete the remains of Ani. All these buildings, walls,citadels, palace, columns, and churches are made of thesame beautiful reddish stone, intermixed with black, whichreceives a fine polish and produces an admirable effect.Everything is constructed. in the most substantial andmassive manner and of first-rate masonry.

The churches are all shaped like a cross. The walls ofone among them were entirely covered with scripturalpictures in fresco of rather coarse execution, but stilltolerably preserved, excepting the heads, of which no doubtMussulman zeal had deprived the figures. Time and theweather had been kinder than man at Ani, for in manyparts of the building the stucco was in perfect preservation,still retaining a brilliant gloss. While we were surveyingthe ruins, many workmen were employed in removing thepillars and large black stones belonging to the inside ofthese melancholy tabernacles, to form stoves for the Pashaof Kars; these were the only living beings in Ani.Another church of considerable dimensions was remarkablefor being perfectly plain and simple, and therefore infinitelymore pleasing than the ornament and tawdriness of theadjoining sacred edifices.

The reputation of the grandeur of this extinct city stillsurvives; our guide said it contained one thousand churches,and a similar number of lamp-oil manufacturers. Theadjoining country is remarkably sterile in its aspect, therebeing no trees within view. The sides of the immenseravine on the west side of the town are covered with excavations, which form small apartments, and which wereevidently used as dwellings or as shops. At this momentone of these cavities is designated as the barber's shop,another the baker's, &c.; shelves and tākches (a shelf cutin a wall) are visible in many of these recesses, which arenow used by the Koords as dwellings in winter. The bedof this immense ravine is at this day called the Charsoo, aPersian word signifying market-place.

The impression left on us by these ruins was a doubt thatthey could date as far back as 800 years, and a persuasionthat the devastation or abandonment of the city must havetaken place at a later period than the reign of Alp Arselān.I think I have read somewhere that the ruin of Ani datesfrom a much later period.

Another reflection which suggested itself to us was, that,as Gumri or Alexandropol was a formidable rampart toTiflis, and an excellent base of operations against Erzeroom,so Ani might be converted into a corresponding offensiveand defensive position for Turkey. These two cities areclose to each other; they are situated on the same riverand similarly protected by immense ravines, and Ani hasthe further advantage of having massive walls ready made.With so many appliances at hand, the expense of convertingthis abandoned city into a fortification of great strengthought not to be heavy.

A short account of the important fortress of Gumri, as itexisted sixteen years ago, since which period it has nodoubt undergone great extension and improvement, willnot be inappropriate here. I had myself seen it on a previous journey, though only for a short time, and furtherinformation was obtained from a trustworthy source.

Alexandropol, or Gumri, was evidently designed to beto Asiatic Turkey what Cronstadt is to the Baltic, or Sebastopol was to Constantinople and the Black Sea. It appearsto be systematic with the Russian government to constructa formidable fortress at each of its remote frontiers, forwhose subjugation time, labour, and an immense army arerequisite. The Turkish government ought to follow thesame rule; and if Ani should be found unsuited for thatpurpose, Kars itself might perhaps be convertible into afortress which would defy the efforts of Russia. We toomight take a hint from the same source, and the westernextremities of our eastern dominions should present similarobstacles to an intruder.

Gumri is distant twenty or twenty-five miles from Kars.It is a bustling little town, which in 1832 contained onlysixty habitations, but which in 1838 had increased to 1200houses. The fortress is situated on a plateau, elevated 100feet above the surrounding country. It is distant about a milefrom the Arpa Chaee, the small stream dividing Russia fromTurkey, and running north and south, which may be considered the ditch of the western face of the fortress, the spaceintervening between the latter and the river being 100 feetlower. The eastern face was guarded in a similar way by aravine 100 feet deep and 150 feet in width, at the bottom ofwhich runs a rivulet. The fortress is about a mile in lengthfrom north to south, and about half a mile in breadth. Itwas intended in 1838 to connect the above two faces by agreat ditch on the northern side; but it was not known ifthe southern face was to be defended in a similar manner.The ground in this direction is rugged; and the southernfront was protected by a bomb-proof casemated batterymounting sixteen guns, constructed of dark soft volcanicrock, which hardens on exposure to the air. It was said to be intended to surround the whole of the plateau onwhich the fortress stands with a rampart fifteen feet highand twenty feet in thickness. Part of this rampart wasalready constructed. In addition to these works it was incontemplation to construct a citadel in the centre of theplateau of the same materials as the casemated battery,with extensive bomb-proof barracks. Preposterouslyenough, the large timber required for the works wasbrought from Turkey. This was in 1838, at which time2000 men were daily employed on the works, which it wasconjectured would require seven years for completion..

Such was the state, sixteen years ago, of the formidablebulwark prepared by Russia for the defence of her Georgiandominions. We may feel an assurance that at this momentthese fortifications are of a nature which no effort of Turkey could disturb.

To return to Erzeroom, we changed our route and proceeded by the pass of Changeneh. We forded the Aras longafter dark, and found it wide, rapid, and deep. Crossing ariver under such circ*mstances is a very disagreeable process, unless the head and stomach are in good order, as oneis apt to fancy that instead of crossing the stream one ispassing down with the current. We then reached theflourishing town of Kaghezmān. I never beheld orchardsat all comparable with those of Kaghezmān, which reallybear more resemblance to forests than to anything else.Hitherto we had been domiciled with Armenians, whoalmost invariably are the scapegoats for travellers inTurkey; we were now lodged in the house of a Turk wellto do in the world, who looked in no small degree perplexed and out of humour when he saw two Giours takepossession of his best apartment.

This war will do the Turks, above all the provincialTurks, service in more respects than saving their country.It will teach them what they did not know before,–thatthere are better men and braver soldiers in the world thanthemselves. A Turk has many valuable qualities, but hisintolerable pride, self-sufficiency, and conceit relative tohis religion, himself, and his nationality, render him offensive, unendurable, and almost useless. The rough rubbingof shoulders he is now going through will leave him awiser, more reasonable, and a better man.

I was confirmed by this trip in an observation I havebefore made. The Armenian towns and villages requireto be protected from Mahommedan travellers, particularlyfrom such as are in the employment of Government. Thereis no doubt that much oppression is inflicted on theseoccasions, and this is one of the points to which the attention of those persons seeking to promote the prosperity ofthe Ottoman empire ought to be directed.

NOTE (C.). Page 101.
THE KOORDS AND KOORDISTAN.

"Eels" – Sheghaghee battalion – Estimation of English officers – Inhospitality – Misconduct and punishment of native officers – Faction fights – Niametees and Hyderees – Mode of fighting – An odd petition – Ardebil: the governor's son – Drunkenness – Shrine of Shah Ismael – Marble-pits – Maragha – A Persian gentleman – Quail-hawking – The Koords – Koordistan mountains – The Afshars – March in pursuit of plunderers – Koordish cavalry – Death of a colonel – Character of Persians – Drinking-bouts – Anecdotes illustrative of Persian character and manners.

IN 1833 I proceeded from India to Persia as second in command of a detachment of officers and serjeants sent by thegovernment of the former empire for the drill and disciplineof the Shah's army, or rather of that portion of it formedfrom the natives of Azerbijan. Shortly after our arrival inTabreez we accompanied the new King, Mahommed Shah,to Tehran to assist in placing him on the throne, the possession of which was disputed by two of his uncles. Thishaving been accomplished, the officers of the detachmentwere dispersed over various parts of Persia. I, with twoserjeants, was sent to Azerbijan to "drill and discipline" abattalion of recruits, amounting to about 600 men, of thetribe of Sheghaghee.

The tribes in Persia are called eels–a Turkish word todistinguish them from the sedentary part of the community,not linked together by the bonds of clanship. Some of theeels are wanderers, who with their families and flocks changetheir quarters each summer and winter, in search of pasture,to grounds more or less distant belonging to the tribe, andwhich cannot be encroached on by other clans. Othereels, who once no doubt were wanderers, have becomesedentary, and have devoted themselves to agriculture, butstill preserving their union as tribe-men. An eel is ruledby its oojāk, or chief, and by its doo*shmāls, or heads of thedifferent teerehs or branches into which it is divided.

The Sheghaghees use two languages indifferently, Turkishand their own Lekee, a dialect of Persian.

The spot fixed on for raising this new battalion wasSerāb, a fine valley lying between Tabreez and Ardebil,and seventy miles from the former city. At the desire of theAmeer Nizam, or commander-in-chief, who was also viseerof the province of Azerbijan, I proceeded to this spot,accompanied by Bala Khan, an old soldier and major,who had seen a great deal of service against the Russians.The Sheghaghees had already furnished from their tribetwo battalions, which were regarded, as the Shah himselftold me one day, on the march to Tehran from Tabreez, asthe best in his service. His Majesty might have added tothis encomium, what he once said to a foreign minister whohad praised the appearance of some regiments at Tehran–"Yes," said the King, with the loud laugh he loved toindulge in, "they are excellent; and better still, they havebeen three years without a fraction of pay, and they neverask me for arrears." They certainly were stout, stalwart,active fellows–but so are nearly all Persian soldiers. TheSheghaghees had some claim on the Shah's gratitude. Theyhappened to be returning from Khorassan when the Kingdied. The pretender to the throne, on their reaching Tehran, sent out his son with a large sum of money to bribethem to enter his service. They took the money, andmarched off next morning, sending notice to the real Shahthat they were ready to join him. I find the followingremark in my note-book: "The poor fellows are four or fiveyears in arrears of pay."

Several of the old officers of these regiments came to seeme on my arrival at Serab. They spoke in the most enthusiastic manner of Captain Christie, an English officer bywhom the regiment had been raised, and who many yearsago had been killed fighting against the Russians at thebattle of Aslandooz.

As an example of the estimation in which English officersare held in those wild districts, I may mention that once,while still attached to the Persian army, I was travelling,and reached a solitary village, in the midst of a large plain,at ten o'clock at night, in late autumn. The villagers weremost inhospitable, and refused to receive me, saying thatthere was nothing to eat, that the village was full of plague,cholera, and what not. The prospect of a supperless nightin the midst of a plain, in an Azerbijan autumn, was ratheruncomfortable, when fortunately one of my servants discovered that the village was chiefly composed of artillerymen who had left the service. I now felt tolerably certainof supper, and I pounced at once on the artillerymen. Itold them they were a low, base-born set of fellows, dogsand sons of dogs, without faith and without honour. Who,I said, half in Turkish, half in Persian-not knowing theformer language well–who made you soldiers? Whotaught you to fight the Russians? Who got you your pay?Who got you your rations? Was it not the English? Howthen dare you to treat an English officer in this way? I couldhear them saying, "Wallāh, doghroo dir!" (By the Lord!it is true.) And they finished by asking pardon, protestingthey were wrong. One among them took me to his house, andled the way to a large comfortable room, with an excellentfire, and filled with his female relations, wife, sisters, &c.,where he said I was to pass the night, and that he wouldget supper ready without delay. "But," said he, "as foryour servants, the sons of dogs, they may go to hell, butthey shall not come here near my wife and children–butyou are welcome." These sons of dogs were Persians andMussulmans like himself, and were left to shift as theycould; while the Englishman, Kafir as he was, was made acherished guest. The whole party at length found accommodation elsewhere, as I refused to place the family to theinconvenience caused by my presence.

The only other instance of downright inhospitality I everencountered was under circ*mstances exactly similar, whilestill in the army, and therefore travelling in somewhathumble array. I arrived late at night at a village, wherequarters were peremptorily refused. Finding remonstranceand good humour unavailing, I dismounted from my horse,and, looking about in the dark as well as I could for a goodhouse, selected one which, for a village habitation, wasrather inviting. On entering the best chamber, I sawseated at a fire a young and very well-looking woman oftwenty, who seemed by no means abashed by my presence.She addressed me in Turkish, and bantered me with greatgood humour for occupying her house without leave, Atthis moment a stout young man came into the room witha sabre in his hand, and, looking very fierce, demandedwhy I entered his house. I felt very uncomfortable,knowing it to be a critical moment; so I walked straightup to him, and bringing forward the hilt of my swordwith my left hand, whilst with the other I threw openthe front of my coat to rejoice his eyes with the sightof a double-barrelled pistol in my belt, said–"Are youmad? Have you lost your senses? Why don't you sendyour wife away? Don't you see that I intend to remainhere to-night? Is this the way you behave to an Englishofficer?" He seemed irresolute for a moment, but at lengthgrowled a reluctant assent. Five shillings in the morningmade him full of gratitude.

I had a troublesome time with my recruits, especially inthe beginning. The Sheghaghees have the reputation ofbeing a wild and rather lawless tribe, yet I found theseyoung soldiers very tractable. Among my notes of thosedays I remark the following observations, which will showtheir condition:–"These poor fellows the serbaz (soldiers)are much to be pitied; they get no pay and only plain breadfor food. They are half naked, and a great part of them arewithout shoes. Many among them do not come to parade,and when I discover the malingerers I punish them muchagainst my will, but, if I did not, I should have the paradeto myself. They are submissive, but not alert in obeyingorders, unless such as require execution on the spot."

With all their reputed turbulence, these young soldiersdisplayed a great deal of patience. Notwithstanding theirshort commons, they bore the incessant drilling, for our timewas limited, with great submission. Outrage, excepting onone or two remarkable occasions, was rare, and they enduredpunishment without murmuring. All this aptitude for asoldier's life was exhibited under the peculiar and tryingcirc*mstances of all the captains and lieutenants beingyouths of eighteen and recruits, like the rest of the regiment.They were the Bey Zadeh, Dhuihne wassels, thegentlemen of the tribe, their fathers being small chiefs.Yet with all these disadvantages so intelligent are Persians,that the battalion was soon able to manœuvre very passably.My great difficulty was the presence of two youthfullieut.-colonels belonging to different and rival branchesof the tribe, each of whom pretended to the chief authority, each being supported by his own sept. To these wasadded an intriguing veteran major, who actually invited partof the regiment to pelt with stones one of the rival colonels.A general conflict followed, in which, in endeavouringto keep the peace and part the combatants, I was nearbeing a sufferer amid the showers of stones which flewon all sides. A few days' interval brought to Serab theAmeer e Nizam, a most excellent but weak man, whosefirst act was to put the intriguing major's feet into thefellak and flog him until he became insensible. Remonstrance with his Excellency on this mode of treating anofficer produced from him a rejoinder that I knew nothingof Persians, and that I should learn in a short time that aPersian officer was not altogether the same as an Englishofficer. "Did you ever see," asked the Ameer, "an Englishmajor incite the soldiers to pelt the lieutenant-colonel? IfI did not act in this way I should soon be pelted myself."Such was the position of English officers in Persia twentyyears ago. With no power excepting that of the lash, andsuch authority as from personal character they could acquirefor themselves–no control over the pay or rations, whichwere always embezzled, or over promotion, which wasalways bestowed from corrupt motives–it is not surprisingthey did not effect more than was done. If they could notenable the Persian troops to contend successfully with theregular troops of other nations, they at all events gave thePersian artillery and infantry the means of beating anunlimited number of Afghans, Koords, and Toorkomans,or irregular Persian troops.

A farther extract from my note-book of those days mayhave some interest, by illustrating the condition of the Persian army, as well as the manners of that country:–

"April, 1835.–I have come to this village, Aspistan, inconsequence of the Ameer's arrival close to it. The newbattalion joined him here, as well as some men of the oldbattalions of the Sheghaghee regiments. Close to his tenta fight took place between two parties of the same corps.The Ameer sallied out in a tremendous rage; he beat theadjutant of the old battalion in a dreadful way, and evenused his own stick most vigorously. He then tied up twomajors of the new battalion to the fellak, and gave them aterrible thrashing. He abused the majors in genuine Persian, not describable in English, and poured the vials of hiswrath without mercy on their wives, sisters, and daughters,in choice idiom; to all which the others made no other replythan that they were the Ameer's dogs. He then orderedtheir tents to be cut down as a mark of disgrace. I hearthat to-morrow he will give them all dresses of honour, thatbeing the Persian mode of expressing forgiveness."

During my abode among the Sheghaghees an occurrencetook place so intimately connected with the religious sentiments of the Persians that this seems to be the propertime to describe it.

"Serab, April 7th, Moharrem, 1835.–To-day I went withB—, who had come to see me from Tabreez, to bathe inthe warm baths of the Booz-koosh, a scraggy range ofmountains, bearing the odd name of Goatkiller. On ourreturn we found the town in an uproar. Two parties,formed from the two parishes, were drawn up, at thirtyyards distance, and were pelting each other most lustilywith enormous stones thrown by hand and by slings.These last were not very efficient weapons, for during thehalf-hour we stood looking at them the hits were very few.The wonder was, that, like the two pugnacious cats ofKilkenny renown, they were not all killed."

Moharrem is the month of which ten days are appropriated annually to solemnise the slaughter of Hoossein,the son of Fātma, daughter of Mahommed. This observance has divided all Persia into two names, for they are not sects, their opinions, belief, and religious practices beingidentical. They bear some analogy with the factions of Ireland,the Caravats and Shanavesths of Tipperary. Theirnames are Niametee and Hyderee, and it is strange that evenwell-informed people can give no explanation of the originalcauses of this institution, which, like everything doubtful orobscure in Persia, is referred to the time of Shah Abbas,three hundred years ago. During the ten days' duration ofthe solemnity, the mutual hatred of the two names is inveterate, and the concluding day, Rooz e katl, seldom passeswithout a fight in every city and town of Persia. After thiseverything returns to its former condition, animosity ceases,and intercourse is resumed as if nothing had happened. Locality determines whether one is a Hyderee or a Niametee,and a change of mahalla, quarter, or parish, produces achange of party. Thus I find I am a Niametee, while mytwo sergeants are Hyderees.

During the night, while the solemnity lasts, the peopleattend in their own parishes, and, forming themselves intocircles, go round in measured time, beating their breasts,and exclaiming "Ya Hassan (another grandson of Mahommed), Ya Hoossein!" with extraordinary enthusiasm. Aslong as each party continues in its own parish all is peaceable; but should any one overstep the border, and shout"Shahsye!" said to be a corruption of Shah Hoossein, itis considered a challenge and the fight begins.

The eels or eelyats do not celebrate the Moharrem inthis absurd manner, consequently the Sheghaghee regimenthas taken no share in the fray. The quarrels of the eelsarise from other causes. A young man runs away with agirl; or a sheep, a cow, or camel is stolen: or a stream ofwater is turned–the most fertile source of broils in Persia;and then follows a row, often a regular fight.

In the evening I wrote to Nejeff Koolee Khan, chiefmagistrate of the town, and head of the Hyderees, that itwas his duty to interfere and prevent a tumult, possiblymurder. He wrote in answer a most humble letter, assuring me that I was not acquainted with the villanies of theNiametees.

8th Moharrem.–This morning Bala Khan, Meer Sedr-ud-deen, Meerza Rāmezān, Meerza Ghaffār, and a number ofinferior people, called on me to devise means for preservingthe peace. They were evidently in great alarm, and saidthat they looked to me to prevent violence, as the Hydereeshad called in aid from the surrounding villages by ordersof Nejeff Koolee Khan, and had sworn vengeance againstthe Niametees to-day. I told them all I could do was tooffer advice, to which no one seemed disposed to listen.My Turkish teacher from Tabreez was in a great fright,and proposed that we should mount our horses, and take anexcursion into the country; for, said he, "I perceive therewill be a row, and they may perhaps attack us."

Before noon the Hyderees assembled in great force ontheir own ground and on the tops of the houses, where theyshouted, and bellowed, and abused, without cessation orcompunction, the mothers and wives of the Niametees, whor*mained quiet and silent in their houses. Encouragedby this, the Hyderees advanced and took possession of aNiametee mosque, and a detachment advanced over thetops of the houses to where I was living, and began slingingstones into my courtyard. "Kiupek Oghleeler, you sonsof dogs!" shouted my ferocious cook, Gool Mahommed;"how dare you insult an English gentleman?" "Bilmadiq Wallāh-We did not know it," was the submissivereply as they retired.

9th Moharrem.–This morning early Nejeff Koolee Khan,Bala Khan, and several other people of both parties, called onme. Ismāël Khan and Imam Koolee Khan, two chiefs fromthe neighbouring villages, and both Niametees, having heardof the jeopardy of their faction yesterday, had come to theirassistance with their followers. The Hajee was an aqseqqāl, or white-beard; the other was a stout, wild, andferocious-looking fellow. Each party tried to impress mewith the opinion that they were very pacific, and that theother party alone was to blame. After much talking theytook leave, and soon after we heard loud yells of Shakhsye.We went out, and saw a body of 200 or 300 men, advancingover the plain, on seeing whom the Niametees went out toIstikbald, and ushered them into the town with shouts andantics, standards, and flags flying. Each man had a largestick, and a piece of carpet or old coat to keep off thestones. With yells and screams they took post near themosque, in line of battle opposite to the Hyderees, whomustered strong, but seemed depressed. The latter gotready for action by taking off their coats, and wrappingthem round their left arms. Both parties now shouted andyelled, and fast and furious flew from side to side epithetswhich it is needless to transcribe. They defied each otherby dancing a figure meant for a challenge. They threwtheir caps in the air, flinging their sticks after them, andthen took a leap with a yell. I thought for a moment I hadthrown off a dozen years of life, and that once more Iwas standing in a glen of the Galtees; but I soon awokefrom my dream, for the accents were not those of Tipperary,but of Alp Arselan, Chengeez, and Timour. At last the fightbegan in earnest, and we had a good view from the top ofa house. After some time two Niametees were carried offbadly wounded; a Hyderee was knocked down, and a partyrushed at him to kill him, but the intercession of MeerSedr-ood-deen saved his life. After an uproar and fight oftwo hours a Niametee got a blow on the head from a stone,which knocked him dead. Nevertheless the Niameteesgained the day, for they drove back the Hyderees to thebazar, which they sacked, as being chiefly filled with theproperty of that obnoxious party. Each side seemed tomuster about 400 men. They fought in detached squads, very much after the fashion of Persian cavalry and Persiandogs.12 When one party made an advance the other retired,and so on alternately, something like the boys' game ofprison-bars. The death of the man seemed to frighten bothfactions, for they gradually withdrew from the field.

On my return home in the afternoon of the same day Iwitnessed a curious and amusing trait of Persian character.An old villager ran up to me, crying, "You are welcome.You are welcome. I am your sacrifice. I have a petitionto make to your service. I want justice, and you havecome, by the help of the Prophet, to give it to me. I havegot a wife, the mother of eight children. A week ago Igave her a drubbing, and she ran off to her own village.Her friends, instead of restoring my wife, are going tomake me pay the dowry and force me to divorce her. Thisis most contrary to equity, and against the law, and I makethis petition in your service that I may receive justice."On inquiring the cause of disagreement, he replied that,having bought her eight yards of beautiful English chintz,she abused him, and called him son of a dog for purchasingless than twelve: thereupon he had beaten her soundlywith the halter of his bullock. In the skirmish she hadpulled out a part of his beard. "Here it is," said he, producing it from his pocket, "and I shall exhibit it againsther, after my death, at the day of judgment." A Persianinvariably preserves these memorials of his brawls andgrievances, to be brought in evidence against the aggressorat the time mentioned above. I remember a servant of theMission, in a fit of excitement from a reprimand he hadreceived from me, pulling out of his pocket, carefully rolledup in numerous coverings of linen, a tooth which, manyyears before, one of my predecessors had dislodged from itstenement under great provocation. He was keeping it forthe rooz-kiamet, the day of judgment.

It may seem strange that a man whose position wassimply that of a regimental captain in the Indian armyshould have been so often appealed to by both parties in amatter not only not military but purely religious. Theanswer is plain. Both parties knew well that any reportI might make would be exactly in conformity with truth,or what I believed as such, and that the testimony of anEnglish officer would be decisive.

10th Moharrem.–This is the last day of mourning, theday of massacre, but the town was as silent as if it had noinhabitants, both parties having gone to make their complaints at Tabreez, where the highest bribe will carry theday.

The city of Ardebil, where the founder of the Seffavee or"Sofi" race of kings is interred, being only fifty milesdistant, I took the opportunity of riding over to visit it.The town is situated in a plain crowned on the north bythe chain of the Elboorz, from the summit of which theCaspian, distant forty miles, is often visible. It is largeand straggling, with a population of 25,000, and a goodbazar. Owing to the elevation, the temperature was so coldthat, even on the 2nd of August, I was forced to makeuse of woollen clothes.

The governor was absent on a tour, but his son did thehonours. He gave himself an impromptu invitation to dinewith me in the evening, and fortunately brought his dinnerwith him. His conversation revealed the object of hisvisit, wine and brandy being the only topics on which hewould converse; but he was sorely discomfited when Iproduced one bottle of wine, my entire stock. He broughtwith him one of his boon companions, who, when helpinghimself to wine, observing a drop at the mouth of the bottle,stretched out his tongue and licked it up. A Persian hasno sense of moderation in his cups. Once he acquires thehabit of using wine, which in the large towns is a verygeneral practice, he never drinks but to get drunk. Menof this kind are usually freethinkers in religion as longas they are in good health, and pretend to laugh at theProphet's prohibition. I knew one Persian gentleman, ashocking drunkard but rather religious, who often bewailed to me his unfortunate propensity. "I know it iswrong," he used to exclaim; "I know I shall go to Jehennam;every day I make a towbeh (an act of repentance), and every night that rascal, my appetite, gets thebetter of me."

The shrine of Shah Ismaël the Great is contained in adecayed mosque built by his great-grandfather Sheikh Seffi,a saint of great renown, from whom the name of the dynastyis adopted. His tomb adjoins that of the valiant monarchwho at the age of fourteen began his career of conquest.

The saint seemed to receive more veneration than thesoldier. On entering the cell where his remains repose,which I did without impediment, I observed several moollas reciting their prayers and counting their beads, andfrom time to time entering into conversation with eachother, according to Mussulman practice when engaged intheir devotions. The tomb lay under a solemn dome, towhich many lamps were suspended, but everything seemedin a state of decay. In the cell of Shah Ismaël, over histomb, there was a large box of sandal-wood shaped like acoffin, inlaid with filigree ivory, which had been sent fromIndia by Hoomeyoom Shah, as a mark of gratitude for theasylum he had once received in Persia from a descendantof Shah Ismaël. Three swords hung from the dome,one of which might be perhaps the veritable weaponwielded by the warlike monarch at the great battle ofChalderan, near Bayazeed, where he received a bloodydefeat from the Turkish Sultan Selim. The Turks are described to have connected their long array of guns bychains, which broke the vigour of the onset of the Persiancavalry. Shah Ismaël led in person a headlong charge, inwhich, with a single cut of his sabre, he divided the chain.The Shah is said never to have smiled after having sustainedthis defeat.

Close to the tomb was a large chamber containing anenormous quantity of blue china of all shapes and sizes,the offering of Shah Abbas to his great ancestor. Whenany one gives a charitable feast to the poor–a commonpractice among the Persians–he is entitled to make use ofthis china, which, consequently, is in a perpetual state ofdiminution. The shrine was also endowed with a large andrich library, of which, when Ardebil was occupied by theRussians in the last war, they carried off above a hundredof the most valuable manuscripts, under the pretence oftaking copies, but which, with an obliviousness savouringstrongly of Muscovy, they forgot to restore. I fear the twogreat curiosities of this library, a Koran six hundred yearsold, which two men could hardly lift, and another Koranin part written by Ali himself, shared the same fate.

My battalion having marched to Tehran, I returned toTabreez, where I found plague and cholera raging withviolence, so I left the city as soon as possible, and startedon my vocation of "drilling and disciplining the Persianarmy" to Ooroomeeya, a large town on the west side of thelake bearing the same name, otherwise called Shahee, andfor variety I travelled by the longer route on the easternside of that fine sheet of water. The face of the countrypresented a remarkable contrast to the desolate, arid prospect generally presented in a Persian landscape. Thevillages were numerous, surrounded by splendid gardensfilled with the delicious fruits for which Azerbijan is renowned even in Persia.

Midway from Tabreez to the city of Maragha I passednear and paid a visit to the petrifactions well known underthe name of "Tabreez or Maragha marble." They aredistant about a mile from the lake, and consist of severalpits or ponds twenty yards wide and eight or ten feet deep.The marble lies in parallel layers, several inches intervening between each layer, the first being about four feetfrom the surface. Some of the pits were dry, owing doubtless to extensive excavation. The stages of petrifactionwere plainly observable from a thickening of the water likeincipient iced cream to solid ice, to which it bore considerable resemblance. The marble is of a whitish colour,with large veins or streaks of various tints. It is excavatedin slabs of considerable size, and is capable of receiving apolish equal to statuary marble. At the Mission-house inTabreez a ponderous table, highly polished, affords a goodspecimen of this mineral substance. The same kind ofpetrifaction is to be seen, it is said, at the hot springs ofAnguani, near Albano, within a few miles of Rome, andalso at Pestum. Perhaps the petrifactions of Maragha, likethose of Italy, are formed by calcareous springs precipitatingthe limestone they hold in solution. The transparency ofthese petrifactions makes it possible that what is termedmarble may be, in fact, alabaster, in which sulphur was theagent instead of carbon.

Maragha is sixty miles from Tabreez. The enormousgardens in which it is enclosed are its only ornament.Tradition makes it one of the most ancient cities of Persia;but now, like most towns in that country, all is decay. Itwas here that, about the middle of the thirteenth century,Hoolakoo Khan, the grandson of Chengeez Khan, afterconquering Persia, established his capital, and erected hisfamous observatory, which now has disappeared, and where,under the superintendence of Nassr ud deen, were completed the astronomical tables known throughout the Eastunder the name of Eelkhanee, or Lord of the Eels, thatis, his patron Hoolakoo.

My friend and I lived with a gentleman of rank andwealth, but of a very eccentric character, who was also thecolonel of a regiment, and who went by the name of Dellee(or mad) Khan. His conversation was limited to the subjectsof shooting and hunting, in which occupations he seemed tohave spent his life. He was a warm admirer of the juiceof the grape; and, as Persians indulge in their potationsbefore dinner, he was generally in a high state of goodhumour at the conclusion of that meal. On one occasionhe offered me a large bribe to throw Ooroomeeya overboard and remain at Maragha to bring his regiment intoorder. On another, he told us he was going to take a freshwife, whom he described to us very minutely, although he.had never seen her; and showed us a love-letter, eitherfrom the young lady herself or from her brother. Everyevening, after he had eaten, drunk, and talked enough, heused to wish us good night, saying he would go to theanderoon (the haram) and have a chat with the women.In Hindoostan a Mussulman gentleman would rather diethan make such an allusion; but in Persia there is farfrom being an equal reserve. The afternoon was spentin that dullest of sports quail-hawking. A dozen ofhorsem*n carried each a sparrowhawk on his wrist, andwhenever a bird rose the nearest hawk was thrown at it.The hawk made his rush, hit or miss, and there was anend of the matter, as the quail clips immediately if notstruck by its pursuer. On one occasion the wrong hawkwas thrown, which allowed the quail to escape, and thismistake roused the violent wrath of the Khan, who proposed to put the hawksman to death, asking my companionand me if that were not the proper punishment.

From Maragha we went to the southern part of the lake,which formed a portion of the district of Souk Boolak belonging to the Perso-Koordish tribe of Mikree. The Koordswere very civil; they gave us good quarters, invited us towalk in their gardens, and brought out their horses for ourinspection. The town of Souk Boolak being only a fewmiles distant, we thought so good an opportunity was notto be lost of seeing a Koordish chief and his little court inall their wildness and freedom, unsophisticated by Persianmanners. We travelled along the pleasant banks of theJaghataï, a river of some size for Persia, and which fallsinto the lake. On arriving, we sent to the chief, AbdoollahKhan, to request we might be furnished with quarters, whichwere immediately assigned to us, and in a short time anexcellent, ample, and multifarious breakfast was sent byour host. We then went to visit him in his deewān khāna,or hall of audience, Where he received us in state, surrounded by fifty or sixty Koords and moollas, his retainers,relations, and friends; but, to our disappointment, insteadof the stately, redoubtable Koord we had prepared ourselves to see, we found Abdoollah Khan had transformedhimself in manners, dress, and appearance, into a Persian.A long conversation followed, in which the whole companyjoined.

The appearance of a Koord of the upper class is verystriking. His face is somewhat Grecian, but thin, resembling the heads to be seen at Shahpoor and Persepolisof the ancient Persians, from whom he is doubtless descended. His person is meagre, like that of an Arab. Hewears an enormous turban, generally a shawl; but amongthe Mikrees it is a particular manufacture of wool andsilk, imported from Moosul, striped red and white, witha long fringe of red hanging down on the shoulders, andmaking a very strange appearance. His trousers are ofenormous size, showing that the owner is a horseman, nota pedestrian. He wears a short jacket, and over all theloose Arab abbā, black or white, made of camel's-hair, andin his girdle the indispensable dagger. The Koords area grave people in public, though among themselves theyare cheerful, and fond of various pastimes. They speakwith loud, boisterous voices, like men accustomed to passtheir lives in the open air.

My companion, who was engaged in commerce, had aneye to business, when he beheld and examined these Koordish turbans, and proposed to himself to drive the Moosulmanufacture out of the market by an importation fromEngland. I had some doubt of its success, for fashion hasits influence in Souk Boolak as well as in London orConstantinople, where Manchester has never been able toextirpate the genuine fes of Morocco.

From Souk Boolak we travelled through a very wilddesolate country back to the lake through the district ofSooldooz. The second day we passed near a Koordishencampment, some of the inhabitants of which came runningtowards us inviting us to be their guests, but, not likingtheir appearance, and knowing that plundering Koords oftenencamp near the road as being more convenient for theirgame, we declined. A Koord is not a man of honour likean Arab, who gives you a fair start from his tent beforehe attacks; neither is he so bad as that vilest of all tribes,the Toorkomans, a compound of treachery and false hospitality.

In Sooldooz we saw nothing remarkable excepting twosmall fresh-water lakes containing immense fish of the carpkind. Next we had before us an object of untiring admiration in the Koordistan range of mountains running northand south; they were covered with snow halfway to thebase; and I know nothing that can cope with the grandeurof a great mountain thus arrayed. What can equal themighty Himalaya? Who can forget those monarch mountains that has once beheld them? Their greatness, theirstillness, and their solemnity fill the mind with the idea ofimmensity and eternity. The ocean by its motion and itsmurmurs fails to excite conceptions of equal depth. TheKoordistan range cannot compete with the Himalaya, stillthey are noble mountains, and full of interest from theancient races, Christian and Koord, inhabiting them.

Our road led us close to the lake, lifeless and still as thatof Palestine, the intense saltness rendering it impossible forfish or other animals to exist in its waters. Although itsshores are not enriched with wood, its appearance is pleasing from the islands with which the central part is studded.The approach to the town of Ooroomeeya is highly picturesque; it is situated in a fine plain bearing the samename, with the mountains of Koordistan on one side andthe lake on the other. The cultivation of this valley isvery rich. For twelve miles it is surrounded with gardens,intermingled with melon-grounds, cotton and tobacco fields:the latter, of high estimation for chibouk-smoking, is sentin large quantities to Constantinople; but for the kaliān,or water-pipe, the tobacco of Sheeraz is the only thingtolerated in "good society," and is of a flavour and delicacywhich would reconcile it to the regal olfactories of the firstJames himself.

I found my regiment of Afshars, amounting only to 200or 300 men, in the same condition as the Sheghaghees whenI first joined them, fresh from the plough; but as severalold soldiers of the same tribe well capable of drilling werepresent, and the colonel, himself a veteran, co-operatedwith hearty good will, everything went on smoothly, andwe made that rapid progress in our military acquirementswhich may always be expected from a Persian when he hasfair play. A Persian is sometimes called the Frenchman ofthe East, from his intelligence, his quickness, his socialqualities, and to these may be added the same aptitude forarms which distinguishes the Gallic warrior. Though henever attains the wonderful precision of an English soldier–I doubt if he ever could–he has a very satisfactory readinessin comprehending and attaining the really essential pointsrequired in a regiment of infantry. A single battalion hasa perfect facility in forming a line, or square, or column,even when unaided by European officers; but when it comesto be increased to a large body, and is required to move,then indeed it is chaos; they settle the difficulty by notmoving at all.

The Sheghaghees are called a wild tribe, but the Afsharsof Ooroomeeya are ten times wilder and more turbulent,owing in part, no doubt, to their proximity to the Koordishfrontier, and to the constant broils and skirmishes in whichthey are engaged with those marauders. In strong contrastwith the quietness or apathy so remarkable in a Turkishcity, these Toorks, when freed from parade, seemed to devotethemselves to quarrels, and, as they never quarrelled withoutyelling and shouting, the whole town, or at least their partof it, resounded with their frays and their most indecentabuse of each other. Their ever-ready kamma, a mostformidable cut-and-thrust dagger, was always at their sidesto make it a word and a blow; yet there was a great dealof method in their wrath. A thrust from a kamma isalmost certain death, and this they are so careful to avoidinflicting, that amid all their fighting I never saw a woundof that kind, though there was a most abundant harvestfrom the edge of the weapon.13 Another of their practiceswas to rob and pilfer in the bazar in broad daylight; meat,vegetables, and other eatables were not safe from theirclutches; but above all a good lambskin-cap had irresistibleattractions in their eyes, the abstraction being usuallyaccomplished by first knocking down the owner of thecoveted spoil. The lash, therefore, was in constant requisition for the first month of my sojourn.

Besides their turbulence, these Afshars, officers and men,were the most drunken set of fellows that I ever encountered. Drinking is not an uncommon vice in the Persianarmy; but at Ooroomeeya, where wine is abundant andtolerably good, it passed all bounds, and I have reason tobelieve that the precept of the Prophet was more or lessset aside by all classes, and that, not satisfied with purchasing wine from the Christian community, they proceeded tothe length of manufacturing it in their own houses.

The object of these notes being to convey an idea ofPersian character under phases and in circ*mstances notusually accessible to ordinary travellers, I think that designwill be best fulfilled by making extracts from a note-bookwhich I kept during my residence at Ooroomeeya.

"Sept. 1st, 1835.–I am always fated to be at strife withthe ruling people, and whether it is their fault or mine Iam at a loss to determine. The contest on the presentoccasion is caused by the Beglerbegee, the Governor, wanting to thrash the soldiers for the disturbances they make inthe bazar, while I insist that no one shall thrash themexcepting myself. These Afshars are great rascals anddeserve drubbing right and left.

"We flogged four fellows to-day, one for stealing a lamb,another for appropriating a fowl, and two for fighting andstabbing. Three officers came drunk to parade; I madethem over to the colonel, who punished them, after thefashion of the country, by a severe drubbing.

"Oct. 2nd.–The delicacy or reserve so observable in Indiawith regard to females exists by no means to the sameextent in this country. The men, even those of high rank,speak without any reserve of their wives and sisters, &c.The colonel of this regiment often talks to me of his wife,and gives me curious details of his domestic arrangements,which, however, do not bear repetition. He visits me frequently at sunset, accompanied by three or four bottles ofwine and a couple of dozen of cucumbers, all of which hefinishes before he retires to his own house to dinner. Thisis the manner in which a Persian delights to take his potations; give him in addition a greensward, a purling stream,a gentle shower, a singer or two to troll out a catch à lanightingale, a pleasant companion, and he is in paradise.

"Oct. 26th.–Intelligence arrived this morning that Mergewer, one of the districts of Ooroomeeya, had been plunderedthe previous night by a large body of men belonging to theMeer of Rewandooz, a rebellions subject of the Sultan,living in the mountains of Koordistan in an almost inaccessible hill-fortress. After three hours' delay three roundsof ammunition per man were distributed to us, and after aterrible uproar we marched out of the town. Here I haltedand protested I would not move a step farther unless flintswere supplied. Three more hours having elapsed, theGovernor collected from the bazars one flint per man,wretched things, fit for pocket-pistols. At length we movedtowards Mergewer, and at night arrived at a village, wherewe halted. Next day in the afternoon information reachedus that 4000 men of the marauders had gone in the direction of a large village with the design of plundering. Itwas sunset when we started, but we hoped to reach it intwo hours, being only six miles distant. Soon after wemarched it began to rain; we then lost our road, and passedover innumerable streams, each of whose bridges was asingle plank; and as Persian soldiers detest wetting theirfeet, they crossed over in single file. We were five hourson the road; it rained as it does in India and was exceedingly cold. Half the soldiers did not come in that night.Having no pouches, their cartridges were carried in thepockets of their large linen trousers. They were dressedin jackets of the same material, without coats or protectionof any kind from the cold; but the power of endurance ina Persian soldier is inexhaustible,

"The Koords did not make their appearance, and not fortwo days was it ascertained that they had gone to their ownside of the mountains. Thus terminated our campaign, andfortunately for us it was a bloodless one. Only three dayspreviously had these recruits received their muskets, andfully half of their number now saw a weapon of that kindfor the first time in their lives. In endeavouring to gainan insight into the use of a ball-cartridge, there was ageneral inclination to insert the ball first; and when oncethey had put the rusty old flint-musket on full-co*ck, fewamong them could get it out of that condition withoutcalling for assistance; yet they manœuvred well.

"During our stay we were joined constantly by parties ofthirty or forty horsem*n, which in all amounted to about400 cavalry; of these the Toorks looked worthless, and theKoords pretty good. The latter were chiefly of the tribeof Shekak. The large and variegated turban of the Koordlooks well; so does he too, with his wild, expressive, manlycountenance; but they are shocking ruffians. Their armsare a spear and sword, and, when they can afford the purchase, a pair of long Turkish pistols in their belt. Theyprefer riding on mares, either because they make less noisethan horses in a marauding excursion, or from an idea oftheir supporting fatigue better. Their horses are small buthardy creatures, of Arab blood. Several of the chiefs pretended to be of Arab descent, though without much foundation for the assumption; yet they look like Arabs, thin,wiry, sinewy fellows. Their manners were very agreeable.

"It is a fine sight to see a body of 300 or 400 Koordishcavalry in movement proceeding on a chapow or maraudingexpedition. They move in a compact body, making greatway over the ground, at a pace half-walk, half-trot, like theAfghans; their spears are held aloft with the black tuftdangling below the point; their keen looks, loud eagervoices, and guttural tones, give them a most martial air.In front are the chiefs, and by their side are the kettledrummers beating their instruments of war with vastenergy; they always lead the way.

"During this trip I lived with, and saw a good deal ofthe Persian military khans, and I preserve a pleasant recollection of their character in general. They can, when needbe, lie down with perfect unconcern in their boorommas orrough great-coats and go to sleep. Bread, cheese, and amelon suffice for breakfast; and dinner was a pilaw, orsomething of that kind. They like to have on the trayseveral little dishes, such as cucumbers, sliced melons,pickles, of which last they are enormous consumers to counteract the effect of their greasy dishes. They hate beingalone at night; they sit up late, talk a great deal, and findgreat pleasure in abusing their absent acquaintances.

"The colonel of this regiment finished his earthly careerthe day after our return, and the cause of his death affordsa good specimen of Persian manners and customs. Thenight of his return from our expedition he got drunk according to his usual practice and quarrelled with his wife.The cause of the dispute was a rebuke from her that heshould propose to sleep in the beroon (meaning the partof the house not used as the haram) when he had a wifein the anderoon. This observation roused the wrath ofthe colonel, who wanted to stab his wife, but, beingprevented, wisely stabbed himself in the thigh, close tothe groin; this was at midnight. In the morning hisrelations begged of me to visit him, which I did, accompanied by a foreign practitioner living in Ooroomeeya.We found him greatly reduced from loss of blood, coldextremities, and pain in the stomach. The apparently judicious course was to maintain his system, but the doctoradopted another treatment, and ordered him a dose of salts.The poor colonel called as loudly as his state would lethim for 'poonch;' and of the two I am sure his prescription was the best. He died that night, and was a loss tohis men, for, in spite of his propensity to wine, he was activeand energetic and indifferent honest.

"Nov. 20th.–I begin to think it hopeless to endeavour toestablish Nizām–the word used to denote a regular armyin Persia. Before my arrival here, the colonel of thisregiment reported to the Ameer Nizam that 500 men wereborne on his muster-rolls; I have been here three monthsand they now amount to 320 men. Nothing can exceed thedifficulty I have had in obtaining money and bread for themen–bread I do get and some money, but only by forceof disputing and quarrelling. Winter has now approached,these poor fellows suffer exceedingly in their linen garments, and not more than half their number can be foundfor parade. An order has come to dismiss the regimentand send the men to their homes, so I am to decamp. Thisis the Persian notion of a 'regular army.'"

My residence among the Sheghaghees and the Afsharsthrew me naturally a good deal into the society of the upperand middle provincial classes of Persia–the lower ranks ofkhans, men of small landed property, which they themselves superintended–that infinitely numerous class calledmeerza, to which every one possessed of the accomplishments of reading and writing, who is not a moolla, or amerchant, or a tribeman, seems to belong. My intercoursewith them gave me a favourable impression of their dispositions. As a man of the world, a Persian is generally a veryagreeable and rather amiable person, unless when his insatiable greediness of power, money, or intrigue, is excited,at which time he is a bad specimen of humanity, and willpause at no wickedness; yet nowhere does one hear so muchtalking and praise of goodness and virtue. As the normalstate of two-thirds of the nation is an avidity for power andmoney, their moral state may be conceived. When notengaged in the indulgence of the above and one or two otherpropensities, the dolce far niente existence has irresistibleattractions to a Persian. His life is spent in talking, andthe more public the talk the more acceptable it is to him.Without this seasoning he can neither plan nor do anything,whether it be to pay a visit to his neighbour, declare waragainst the Sultan, or murder a Russian minister. So national is this habit, and so highly is it valued, that theyseldom discuss a man's character, moral and intellectual,without adding "he is a very agreeable man in conversation," or the reverse. We frequently used to take excursions on horseback of some miles to a garden, vineyard,cucumber or melon ground. They seemed unable to ridequietly along the road, some rushing forward to throwthe jereed, others to play at ky kaj. If an unfortunatesparrow or lark was detected wondering at the cavalcade,hawk in hand he was pounced upon. If a tree or a streamlooked at all inviting, a proposal was often made to buy alamb from a neighbouring flock; he was soon cut up intosmall bits, a fire was kindled, and a ramrod formed the spit.So ready are they for these rural culinary arrangements,that each man carries a little spit and a knife attached tothe sheath of his kamma, or dagger. Or they would get aquantity of melons, in which fruit they pretend to be greatconnoisseurs, and open fifty before they found one to theirtaste. But talking–"bald disjointed chat"–was the stapleof everything. Altogether they are pleasant fellows for aspace.

But their amusem*nts are said not to be always quite soharmless. In their drinking parties they are reported,among even the highest classes, to exceed all bounds of discretion. Half a dozen boon companions meet at night. Thefloor is covered with a variety of stimulating dishes toprovoke drinking, for which no provocation whatever isrequired; among these are pickles of every possible variety,and salted prawns or cray-fish from the Persian Gulf–a foodwhich ought to be an abomination to a true Sheah. Singersand dancing-boys enliven the scene. A Persian despises awine-glass; a tumbler is his measure. He has an aversionto "heeltaps," and he drains his glass to the dregs, withhis left hand under his chin to catch the drops of wine, lesthe should be detected next morning in respectable societyby the marks on his dress. They begin with pleasant conversation, scandal, and gossip; then they become personal,quarrelsome, abusive, and indecent, after the unimaginablePersian fashion. As the orgies advance, as the mirthwaxes fast and furious, all restraint is thrown aside. Theystrip themselves stark naked, dance, and play all sorts ofantics and childish tricks. One dips his head and face intoa bowl of curds, and dances a solo to the admiring topers;while another places a large deeg, or cooking-pot, on hishead, and displays his graces and attitudes on the lightfantastic toe, or rather heel.

I shall conclude this digression by a few anecdotes illustrative of Persian character and manners. In a long intercourse with Persians, one is apt to imagine that there is nosuch thing as conscience throughout the land; but this is amistake. It does exist; and if the examples of its influenceare not often met with, a Persian would say the reason isthat the occasions are wanting. "You English" (once saidto me a Persian, a diligent student in the scandal, gossip,and politics translated for the Shah from English newspapers by an Englishman whom he retains in his servicefor that purpose) "are perpetually sneering at the wickedness of Persia, as if England were all goodness. Yet wherein the world are such wretches to be found as in that paragoncountry of yours, where wives, husbands, fathers, mothers,sons, and daughters, are for ever poisoning and murderingeach other for a few shillings; where a man cannot let hisland as he pleases without being murdered; where peopleslay each other for some difference in the dogmas of thesame religion; where the most inconceivable schemes areinvented to perpetuate fraud and swindling, such as neverentered into the imagination of any other people; where inone city alone there are almost 100,000 women of knownimpropriety; and where you are everlastingly boasting ofyour own morality and superiority?" "Khan e azeez e men.My worthy khan, it is true, quite true, that we are a wickedrace; but the difference between us and you is this,–thatwith all our enormous vice there is a vast deal of virtue inEngland: tell me the number of good men in Tehran."

But to my illustrations. A man once rushed into Mr.N—'s room at Tabreez, and, throwing five shillings onthe table, exclaimed, "Take it, take it; thank God I havegot rid of it. I have had no rest for a month." This wasa penitent glazier who had overcharged him, but whoseconscience would not sleep.

B— told me a story which puts the Persian characterin a curious light. A very respectable merchant, one whosometimes paid him 1000l. in cash, once called on him andsaid he had a private communication to make. When theywere alone, the man displayed the utmost agitation; hetrembled and his eyes started from the sockets. At lengthhe said, "For two months I have not slept, owing to aninjury I once did to you. Do you remember that twomonths ago I, with some other merchants, was looking atsome china tea-sets belonging to you? On that occasion Istole a teacup and saucer, which I put in my pocket.Though I am ready to expire from confusion, I find itnecessary for my peace of mind to own my fault. I havenot slept since, and I beg you to make this lawful to me."14From agitation, these words were uttered with difficulty.B— asked him what could induce a man like him tocommit such an act? to which he answered, that he couldascribe it only to the villany and malice of the devil.

B— gave me an account of a dinner at which he waspresent last night. Agha —, the magistrate of the parish,was the host, and the guests were A— Khan, a man ofvery high rank, H— Khan, and Meerza M—. Threeof the party became perfectly intoxicated, the others gambleduntil the losers had no more to lose, and what they didlose was money borrowed on the spot from B—. Thelanguage they used to each other was beyond measureobscene. Accusations of cheating, perfectly true for thatmatter, were bandied to and fro, and daggers were drawnmore than once. So much for the fashionable societyof —.

There has been a three days' illumination of the bazarat — in honour of the capture of Sheeraz. The bazarswere prettily lighted up and ornamented with shawls,tinsel, handkerchiefs, &c., hung up in the shops, while thepeople seemed to amuse themselves with singing, playingon the tambourine, &c. We met — Khan, beglerbegeeor governor in the street, and strolled about with him. Hewas not only perfectly drunk, but he even ventured to drinkwine in the bazar in a room open to the view of the public.He boasted of having collected 40 tomans that night bysuppressing rows, fines for not lighting, &c. As we wentalong, whenever the people did not clap their hands andsing to show their joy, he laid about on their heads withhis stick with his own hands, and he finished his blackguardism by . . . .

— writes from Ooroomeeya that a Nestorian girl hasbeen seized by a Mussulman, who wants to force her tobecome a Mahommedan. This is the second instance of asimilar kind within a short time. He also writes word thata child was found dead at the door of a Jew, and that therewas no doubt of the death being natural. The mob assembled and insisted on slaying the 300 Jewish familiesresiding at Ooroomeeya. They were pacified by beingallowed to burn one whom they selected for that purpose.

It is a prevalent belief in Persia that the Jews offerannually a Mussulman child in sacrifice, and this calumnyis constantly made the pretext of oppressing that race.

This is not the first time I have heard of a victim sufferingthe penalty of burning, which seems to be a favourite discipline among the Afshars. A Nestorian tenant would notor could not pay his rent, so his Afshar landlord made abonfire of him on his own thrashing-floor.

The Ameer gave me a strange narrative of a disturbancein Tehran. A Nestorian in the Russian regiment15woundeda shopkeeper in the bazar. While the bystanders endeavoured to seize him, he killed two men and wounded threeothers. The culprit was taken before the king, who ordered him to be conveyed to the square and put to death,and his Majesty sent his Ferash bashee and his Ferashes toexecute the sentence. The soldiers in the square at drill,chiefly Persians, rescued their Christian comrade, thrashedthe Ferash bashee, and hurried the criminal to the house ofthe Russian minister, who, they insisted, should intercedefor the man. He did so. This ruffian was pardoned onpaying the price of blood. The Russian elchee offered tocontribute 300 tomans (150l.), but his donation was refusedby the colonels of the regiments, who raised the moneyamong themselves. It was a very curious circ*mstancethat these Mahommedan soldiers should have interfered tosave the life of a Christian, merely from the spirit of comradeship.

¹² It is highly amusing to witness a combat between two parties ofthe numerous dogs residing near the slaughterhouses outside the wallsof a Persian city. They live in communities of 40 or 50 in a pack, 80or 100 yards distant from each other. Some fresh offal brings on afeud. Four or five dogs rush out as if to assault the opposite party,but gradually diminishing the pace as they approach. Seeing thisslackness, six or eight of the enemy sally forth, the former retreat atfull speed, and the same takes place on the other side, and so on backwards and forwards without ever coming to close quarters, the noncombatants howling and yelling furiously all the time. The Koordsfight in exactly the same manner; at least their mock combats, nodoubt a true representation of real battles, are so conducted. I remember once ridiculing a Koordish chief for this harmless mode of fighting, telling him that European cavalry, when good on both sides,charged home in a line, and that the Koords ought to do the same.That would never do, said he, "Kheilee adam kooshteh mee shewed"–a great many people would be killed.

¹³ This dagger is often a foot and a half in length, and upwards oftwo inches wide at the broadest part, and very heavy. It is thefavourite weapon of the Lezghees of Daghastan. The blade generallycontains appropriate inscriptions, inlaid and gilt. One in my possession is adorned with the following,–"I am sharper than the wit ofPlato: I am more murderous than the eyebrow of a young damsel."

¹⁴ "Making lawful" means making a gift of all peculations and thefts,so that no account may be demanded at the day of general judgment.A discharged servant usually adopts this precaution.

¹⁵ Twenty years ago there was a regiment of Russian deserters in theservice of the Shah. They always fought well. The regiment no longerexists.

NOTE (D.). Page 103.
TOORKOMANS.

Treaty of Toorkoman Chaee – Encroachments of Russia – Russian "protection" – Occupation of Ashoorada – Repression of Toorkoman incursions – Russian naval strength in the Caspian.

THE treaty of Toorkoman Chaee was a crushing, almost adeath blow, to Persia; and yet we may rejoice that it was no worse, for the Czar was "master of the situation," histroops being at the Kaplan Kooh, ready to march into Irak.Ignorance saved Persia. Had Russia known then as wellas she now does the value of Azerbijan–commercial, political, and material–its richness in corn, mineral productions, and soldiers, there can be little doubt that province,too, would have been absorbed by the "Holy" Empire.

It was not until he saw his kingdom lying prostrate thatthe sovereign of Persia could be induced to let loose thesavings of his lengthened reign. Even then great talent,tact, and the ascendency of a strong mind over an inferiorcapacity, were needed to unlock his hoards. Sir JohnM'Neill saved Persia. Though he had then been only a fewyears in that country, it was to his influence and argumentsalone that the Shah would yield. Russia extorted the overwhelming sum of two millions sterling on the pretence ofdefraying the expenses of a war provoked by her domineering attitude, and by the aggressive occupation of a portionof Persian territory. It was by this treaty that Russia completed her boundaryto the Aras, giving herself thereby easy and immediateaccess to the cities of Tabreez and Khoee, when the timeshall be matured for the giant to take another stride inadvance. The Aras does, however, make a well-definedfrontier, obviating disputes in the adjustment of the line;but towards the mouth of that river Russia has disregardedthis desirable object. At the previous treaty of Goolistan,in 1814, Russia had extended her territory 150 miles beyondits banks, over more than half the province of Talish. Bythis means the valuable Caspian province of Geelan, "thechoicest province of Persia," as Hanway truly says, whichshe has coveted since the time of Peter the Great, and whichthat monarch occupied with his forces, lies at her mercy.

When we ourselves witness the difficulty with which thevigilance of England was aroused to designs prepared atour thresholds by the sovereigns of Russia in the plenitudeof their "magnanimity," our surprise need not be excitedat its having slept during the progress of events in so remote and obscure a spot as Persia. It ought rather tocreate wonder that Russia did not profit to a greater extentby our supineness. The eyes of Russia are now open to thevalue of Azerbijan; so too, it may be hoped, are our own.

These were not the only blows inflicted on Persia by thismemorable treaty. At the recent notable conferences ofVienna, Russia rejected with disdain, as insulting to herdignity and independence, any proposition tending to thelimitation of her naval strength in the Black Sea. Let usexamine her tender treatment of the dignity and independence of her weak neighbour, in a question of the samenature.

The Caspian Sea washes the coasts of the Persian provinces of Talish, Geelan, Mazenderan, Asterabad, and Persian Toorkomania. The inhabitants of these spacious territories carry on an extensive commerce, in part with thePersian ports on that sea, in part with the Russian districtson its northern and western shores. With a far-seeing policy,which anticipates all the possibilities of futurity, whenPersia was gasping almost in the last throes, Russia humbledher to the dust, by forcing on her the renewal of a stipulation contracted at the treaty of Goolistan, by which shebound herself not to maintain any vessel-of-war in the Caspian Sea. Upwards of a hundred years ago an Englishmannamed Elton, a man of wonderful ability and resource, whohad been brought up to a seafaring life, and who had previously been an officer in the Russian navy, was in theservice of the Shah (Nadir), and not only commandedhis naval forces in the Caspian Sea, but built ships forhim on European models. The most unnautical nationin the world, with an Englishman as their leader, became dominant on the Caspian, and, as the author of the'Progress of Russia in the East' says, "forced the Russians to lower their flag," and the banner with the openhand16 floated triumphantly through the length and breadthof the Caspian. To preclude a revival of this discomfiture,Persia was forced to sign her degradation, and the Caspianbecame a Russian lake. When the Czar rendered Persiapowerless on this inland sea, he was heedless of the factthat the Toorkoman pirates of the Eastern coast near theGoorgan and the Atrek were accustomed to make descentsin their boats on the Persian shores, to kidnap the inhabitants and carry them into slavery. True, he was ready tomake compensation, by sending his own vessels-of-war to "protect" the Persian coast from depredation; but the realmeaning of imperial protection is not unknown in Persia,and for a long time this proffer was regarded in the light ofthe Persian fable of the frog who invited the snake to guardhis dwelling. Unfortunately an event occurred severalyears afterwards which placed them in the poor frog's predicament, and which, though not strictly bearing on thetreaty of Toorkoman Chaee, as it refers to the Caspian, maybe introduced here.

The small sandy island of Ashoorada is situated in the gulfor bay of Asterabad, about twelve miles from the coast nearest to that city, which is twenty miles from the sea. Insize it is about a mile and a half in length, and less than amile in width. The water is deep in its vicinity; and itslee affords a secure shelter in a gale from any direction.Hitherto it has been uninhabited. Twelve or thirteen yearsago it fell into the hands of Russia, by one of those protective processes of which we have lately heard so much.Its advantages as a naval station had not escaped the observation and cupidity of Russia. It commands the entranceto the bay, menaces that portion of the coast inhabited bythe Yemoot Toorkomans, and intercepts the commercewith Mazenderan, on which the stationary tribes of thatrace chiefly depend for subsistence. The island possessessources of sweet spring-water, together with a climate remarkable on that coast for its salubrity. The inner side hassufficient depth of water to float a brig-of-war, within a fewyards of the beach. These are some of the inducementswhich led to the occupation of this spot of Persian territoryby the Russian government, which act was perpetrated in1841, immediately after the catastrophe of Cabul becameknown. At that time Persia was ruled by MahommedShah, a monarch of whose wisdom much cannot be said.He had for minister a man who was half mad and wholeRussian. He was a native of Erivan, in Russia, and oftenproclaimed himself to be a subject of that empire. Thiswas the notorious Hajee Meerza Aghassee, who, from tutorto the royal family, was raised at once to the vezeership.Russia was asked to lend Persia for a short time one or twosmall ships of war, to hold in check the Toorkomans residing between Asterabad and the Toorkoman settlement ofHassan Koolee, at the mouth of the Atrek. With the mostamiable and neighbourly cordiality she replied that shewould save Persia all trouble, and come herself to chastisethe marauders. Two vessels of war forthwith appeared,and soon after established themselves at Ashoorada, fromwhence they have never since moved. Complaint and remonstrance were met by counter charges of ingratitude, andby indignant expostulation at this offensive display of distrust. It is not surprising that there should be a reluctanceto depart. The position is a good one; for, besides overawing the Toorkomans, it also controls Mazenderan. Themost complete possession has been taken of the island. Itis covered with residences, hospitals, barracks; and soilhas been conveyed to it for the construction of gardens. Inshort, there is every evidence of permanent occupation andretention.

The sea-going Toorkomans have been brought undercomplete control. Some have been sent to Siberia, or toRussia Proper. Not a boat is allowed to move without apassport, under heavy penalties; and even Persian boatsare under the same restriction; this, too, on the coast oftheir own sea! Since the occupation of the island a consulhas been placed at Asterabad, so that, with the consul onone side and the commodore on the other, Mazenderan alsois on a hopeful road to protection.

True, the incursions of the Toorkomans have nearlyceased. But the Persians say, and with justice, that anoccasional chepawool of these pirates was less irksome thanthe presence and interference of consul and commodore.

No attempt has yet succeeded for forming an establishment on the mainland among the Toorkomans. When theday for that arrives, the Goorgan will doubtless receive apreference. Its banks are on the high-road to Meshed, andare covered with the richest pastures; and the climate andthe soil are suited for the production of abundant harvestsof corn. No fitter spot could be found for subsisting anarmy, or for being made the basis of a plan of military operations to the East.

The naval strength of Russia in the Caspian is not easilyascertained with correctness. It is believed to amount tofour or five small steamers and a few brigs and schoonersof war, the largest not carrying more than eighteen guns;but her supremacy is as complete as that of England in theIrish Channel.

Unfortunately for Persia she has taken no share in thepresent war. If she had done so, her frontier would, perhaps, have undergone revision, and her sea have been madefree. Even under present circ*mstances, perhaps, she willnot be overlooked.

¹⁶ The banner of Persia is surmounted by an open hand, of whichthe five fingers are said to express Mahommed, Ali, Fatma, Hassan, andHoossein.

NOTE (E.). Page 212.
THE NESTORIANS.

Nestorian khaleefa, or bishop – Church service – Religious opinions – Preparation of a khaleefa – Their sufferings from the Afshars – American mission – French Lazarists – Sectarian disputes – Interference of Russia – Question of descent.

DURING my residence in Ooroomeeya, in the year 1835, Iwas brought into communication with the Chaldæan orNestorian inhabitants, particularly the clergy of that city.My mission being of a nature unconnected with proselytism,and addressed to the body rather than to the soul, to themaking of soldiers rather than of saints, it is probable thattheir disclosures relative to their religion were more candidthan when addressed to the missionaries of France orAmerica. As the Nestorians have excited a good deal ofattention from their geographical position, preserving theirChristianity in the seclusion and amid the barbarism of theKoordistan mountains, I make some extracts from my note-book of those days. If the result of my inquiries sometimes differs from those of the American or French missionaries, I cannot explain the cause of the discrepancy excepting in the manner I have alluded to above.

September 4th, 1835.–A Nestorian khaleefa, or bishop,called on me to-day. His only language was Kaldanee,the same word doubtless as Chaldæan, which occasioned atroublesome double interpretation from that language toTurkish, and then to Persian. He was a strange-lookingmember of the episcopacy. He wore an enormous red-and-yellow pair of trousers, an immense red-and-black turban,and was furnished with a stout beard. His abba, or camel's-hair cloak, was tattered, and altogether his see did notappear a very thriving one, though this appearance of indigence might have been feigned as a defence against Mussulman extortion. He had come two years ago from themountains of Koordistan, where he said the Nestorianswere numerous, to take charge of that community in theplains. Though acquainted with the word Nestooree, itwas, he said, rejected by his people, who disavowed Nestorius; and he affirmed that the word intended to be usedwas Nesseranee, a common expression over the East forChristians, and derived from Nazareth: Kaldanee was thename, he said, of his nation and language, the latter bearinga strong resemblance to Syriac, and much affinity withArabic. Mar Shimoon (Great Simon), he said, was thename of his chief or Patriarch, who lived at Kojamis, nearJoolamerk, in the heart of the mountains. Great Simon,according to his account, must be a very great man, for hecan muster an army of fifteen thousand men, all Christians,who belong chiefly to the mountain districts of Toqoobeeand Teearee. In short, he is a downright pope. I askedthe bishop if he had any objection to my attending divineservice in his village–to which he replied it would be afavour to his community. I inquired, if Englishmen cameamong them to instruct and educate them, how they wouldbe received. He replied, with honour and joy. He addedthat they did not wish for Feringhees (Frenchmen, nodoubt), as they were Qatoleeqs (Catholics), yet if they didcome, being strangers, and from a distant land, they wouldbe kindly received. At parting he gave me an apostolicbenediction, and wished my friends in heaven and my enemies to the devil.

September 7th, Sunday.–To-day I went to the Nestorianchurch. It was in a village near the town, surrounded bybeautiful gardens. I found the bishop standing in thevillage, apparently superintending the slaughter of an ox.As he had no signs of praying about him, I asked him if Iwere late, and if prayers were over–to which he answeredthat he had deferred the service on my account. We thenproceeded to the church, and, by a door three feet in height(these small dimensions being, no doubt, intended for security), we entered a dark room twenty feet square, the floorof which was covered with a few pieces of matting. Therewere three brick structures, which seemed to be altars, foron them books were placed, and in one corner lay a largebundle of firewood.

The service was simple enough. The bishop had a singleattendant, who, I suppose, was a priest, and not at all areputable-looking son of the church. The bishop was notdecked in vestments or clerical garments of any kind; andthe priest put on only a white band round his neck, withanother round his waist, ornamented with a cross. On themiddle altar there was a lamp burning; and during prayersa vessel containing very strong incense was occasionallyswung. They applied it to the books on the altar (theScriptures, no doubt), to a figure of the cross, the bishop'sbeard, the priest's face, then to mine, to the great discomfiture of my nose and eyes, and then a small dose was administeredto the rest of the congregation when it arrived.The bishop and priest sang and chanted alternately. Theyremained in a standing position, excepting when they readthe bible, when they sat. Their mode of reading the Scripture resembled the monotonous, though far from unpleasing,recitative intonation used in reading the Koran. From thenear connexion of Arabic and Kaldanee, and from the apparent metrical division of the verses, it also bore a strongsimilarity to the Koran. For a long time I and my twoMussulman servants formed the entire congregation. Thepriest appeared to get ashamed of so scanty an attendance,for a boy, peeping in at the door, was apparently sent tocollect an audience, which soon after appeared, representedby half a dozen of men and a few women. The men kissedthe bishop's hand, mine, and that of the priest more than once.The behaviour of the khaleefa was tolerably respectful.The priest, who was constantly yawning, seemed heartilytired of his occupation, and was continually talking in amost irreverent manner to the congregation, who imitatedhis example.

In the church there was not a single picture or image,and, in answer to my inquiry, they said such things werenever permitted by their religion.

After the service we went to the bishop's house to eatfruit; the habitation was poor, but clean. The subject ofreligion being soon introduced, I took the opportunity ofasking whether according to their creed Christ was God orman–to which some of the company replied, that he wasa Peyghember, meaning a Prophet in Persian. The bishopgot hold of the word, and talked to them in Kaldanee withmuch warmth. The discussion ended by their saying theycould not take on themselves to declare whether he wasGod or man; that they did not like to assert he was God,and were equally averse to pronounce him to be only aman; farther, they affirmed that he had existed beforeAdam, and, like God, had always been.

This was all the information I could obtain on themooted point, what attributes the Nestorians ascribe to thesecond Person of the Trinity. Some years after the aboveconversation I was assured by an American missionary tothe Kaldanees that their belief was in perfect accordancewith that of the Churches of Rome and England; while aLazarist missionary to the Catholic Kaldanees near Ooroomeeya affirmed, with equal positiveness, that their disbeliefin Christ's Godhead was complete.

The fact seems to be that the Nestorians assign too literalan interpretation to the maxim of being all things to allmen. Centuries of oppression and misgovernment havemade them too eager in yielding their opinions to thosepersons with whom they converse, if the latter happen tobe superior in station; hence the difficulty in ascertainingtheir real belief. Dr. Grant, of the American mission, lookson the Nestorians, as nearly entitled to the dignity of beingclassed as "sound Protestants." Yet the following is theaccount of their religious condition given by the Rev. Mr.Dwight and the Rev. Mr. Smith, two American missionarieswho preceded Dr. Grant and the Rev. Mr. Perkins in theirresearches at Ooroomeeya, and who complained of the difficulty they experienced in arriving at a conclusive opinionon this subject. They positively recognise the divinity andhumanity of Christ in one Person, but the Spirit proceedsfrom the Father alone. There are seven sacraments, baptism, eucharist, ordination, marriage, burial, confirmation,confession; but not auricular confession, which some ofthem say is found in their ancient books, but is not nowpractised. The laity take the bread and the wine at communion; the elements cease to be bread and wine afterconsecration; transubstantiation takes place, and a sacrificeis offered up in the mass. They fast abundantly, and eatno animal food at such periods. They abstain from labouron festivals, and celebrate the feast of the Assumption; butthey hesitate to recognise the fact. They read the Scripture a good deal; the canonical books are the same as inthe Catholic church. The Church service is not understoodby the people at large, being in Estrangelo, or old Syriac;but there are translations for their use. They pray to thesaints, and regard them as mediators. Hell is eternal.Masses and prayers are said for the dead, but purgatory isdenied. Bishops cannot marry, or eat meat; the clergymay marry, but those who do so are not eligible as bishops. There are monasteries for monks, and convents for nuns,who take vows of celibacy, seclusion, &c. They offer sacrifice of animals to remove sickness, &c. One of the authorities of these American missionaries was a bishop oftwenty. The bishops did not all agree in the expositionof their creed.

To resume my note-book. I asked if they confessed theirsins to the bishop, and if he pronounced a pardon of theiroffences. This inquiry produced a long, loud, and hot discussion in Kaldanee. The bishop was very energetic, butcould get no one to listen to him. At last it was decidedthat confession was not admitted in their church, and thatnone besides God could forgive sin. As I before observed,the Nestorians are sometimes accused of regulating theirprofession of faith according to the supposed opinions ofthe inquirers. In this instance I was, as a matter of course,regarded as a Protestant; but had my Chaldæan friendsbeen aware of my being a Catholic, their replies might perchance have been different.

When a man intends to have a son a khaleefa, for threeyears before the birth of the prospective bishop his mothermust abstain from flesh of every description. If instead ofa son a daughter is born, the latter neither eats meat normarries during her life. The khaleefaship seems to be confined to families. A khaleefa, for instance, dies; his brotheror sister sets about producing another should the defunctbishop have no nephews.

Such was the beginning of my intercourse with the Nestorians or Chaldæans of Ooroomeeya. Neither they nor Ithen guessed how much more intimate our connexion wasto become. When subsequently my position was altered,and that circ*mstances enabled me to befriend the Christians living in this secluded spot, I did not fail to aid themto the extent of my power. Their sufferings were chieflyowing to the oppressions of the Afshars, which are bothincredible and indescribable. I myself saw enough to convince me that they did not repose on a bed of roses. Theirdaughters are carried off and forcibly married to Mussulmans; their young sons are often compelled to embraceMahommedanism; and the needy Afshar nobles extortmoney from their helpless ryots by extraordinary modes oftorture. So at least we are told; though, to say the truth,I have always thought that invention was not backward inthese narrations. With the aid of my agreeable and astutecolleague, Count Alexander Medem, the Russian Ministerat Tehran, I succeeded in obtaining unusual privileges forthis community. A Christian chief, a refugee from Georgia,and a colonel in the Persian army, was placed over themas superintendent, with a general charge of their affairs,to protect them from violence and extortion. When theirbrethren, subjects of the Sublime Porte in the hitherto inaccessible mountains of Tokoobee and Teearee, were suffering desolation from fire and sword at the hands of BedrKhan Bey, the savage chief of Bohtan, the Nestorians ofOoroomeeya were enjoying unwonted security in personand property.

More than this, sympathy for this race came from no lessa place than America, where one would think they hadenough of their own, red and black, to educate or convert,without wandering to the sequestered valley of Ooroomeeyain quest of the sons of Shem. They have, however, doneso, and have succeeded, as was to be anticipated when zeal,intelligence, and wealth were brought into action. Soonafter my arrival Dr. Grant, of the New England IndependentChurch, made his appearance at Ooroomeeya, where he wasshortly followed by the Rev. Mr. Perkins. Dr. Grant, aman of great activity and energy, was gathered to hisfathers some years ago at Moosul, owing to a malady contracted in his vocation; but Mr. Perkins, who is distinguished for his scholastic acquirements, is the head of theflourishing American mission of which they then plantedthe germs. Gradually their compatriots, both men andwomen, increased in number, according as the object oftheir wealthy society was developed, and when a positionon a strong foundation was established. They are now acolony. They were warmly received by the Nestorians,whom they professed only to educate, and were freelyallowed to pray and discourse in the churches. Two yearsago they were thirty-eight Americans in number, men,women, and children, who enjoy English protection. Theyhave their town house and their country house in the neighbouring hills, fortified sufficiently to resist a predatoryincursion of Koords. The entire educational managementof the Nestorian youth, of both sexes, has been in theirhands during many years. As they profess not to proselytize, I designedly refrain from adding that their religiousinstruction is equally under the control of these reverendgentlemen, though this point was often the subject of good-humored discussion between them and me; I maintaining,as well I might, that practically education by them wasconversion. The clergy seem to be entirely in their hands,many of the most influential among the episcopacy receiving salaries as teachers. Their schools for boys andgirls are numerous, and thronged with pupils, who receivenot only instruction, but, I believe, a small monthlyallowance, when necessary, for subsistence. That mightyregenerator, a printing press, has been established, andis in constant operation; and when I left Persia therewas an electric telegraph in course of construction to communicate between the town and country establishments ofthe mission.

All this training must necessarily produce fruit; the presence, example, and instruction of such men cannot fail todo their work; and I doubt not that a change is taking place,which in a generation or two will produce a vast improvementin the moral and intellectual condition of the Nestorians.

Yet I cannot go the length of a foreign diplomatist ofdistinguished literary reputation, whom I once accidentallymet in a railway carriage, and who declared, with a heatwhich could not brook opposition, but which enthusiasmmight sanction, that the regeneration of Persia was to proceed from the American missionary establishment; but ashis excellency, with equal tenacity, maintained that thepresent Christian movement, as he was pleased to call it, inChina, was infallibly a token of Chinese regeneration, civilization,progress, and what not, I felt no disposition torelinquish the plain and obvious conjecture that the civilization of Persia is, according to the ordinary course of events,to proceed from England, Russia, and Turkey. Persia hasalready made some advance. She is different from whatshe was twenty years ago; and this can be only owing toan infusion of European ideas.

This American rose-garden could not remain altogetherfree from thistles, and the thistle was a rival establishment.The Kaldanees, or Chaldæans, are divided into two religions,the one of the Nestorian faith, the other of the Church ofRome. The former are numerous in the valley of Ooroomeeya, amounting to perhaps 400 families; while theCatholics are few. But in the adjoining district of Salmas,between Ooroomeeya and Khooe, the Catholic Kaldanees area considerable body. When the American establishmentin Ooroomeeya became known, the Propaganda at Romefelt alarm at the danger to which its flock was exposed;and though some of the priests at Salmas had been educatedat Rome, it was considered that European energy only couldstem the torrent from the western hemisphere. SomeFrench Lazarist missionaries were despatched to the rescuein the persons of Père Cluzel, Père Darnis, and one or twoothers. These gentlemen abounded in zeal and activity;but they were poor, and wholly unable to contend againstthe treasures of Boston and the paraphernalia which gaveso much brilliancy to the operations emanating from, Ooroomeeya. It was as much as they could do to hold their ownground, and preserve their flock from the invaders. Asmight be surmised, dissensions followed. There were accusations and recriminations. I advised each party to cultivatehis own vineyard, to guard his own flock, to eschew contention and rivalry, of which the result might be theexpulsion of both missionary establishments. This advicewas adopted; and if there has been any want of that charityto which both appealed so often, there has been at least anabsence of open hostility.

The French missionaries had, in fact, a narrow escape ofexpulsion through the hostility of the Russian Government,which even proceeded to the length of extorting a firmanfrom the late Shah prohibiting Christians from changingtheir religion. The intention was to prevent conversionamong the Armenians to other creeds, Catholic, Protestant,or Nestorian. The Patriarch of the Armenians of that partof the world being a resident in Russia, the Emperor perhapsconsidered himself in a measure the head of that church.When Mahommed Shah died, and his Muscovite MinisterHajee Meerza Aghasee ceased to reign (for he in reality wasthe sovereign), the Persian Government was persuaded torevoke that obnoxious edict, and Christians are again free tochoose their own faith.

Who are the Kaldanees? I have ended with the beginning. According to the opinion of that enterprising traveller and zealous missionary, my friend the late Dr. Grant,who by his researches was well qualified to form an accuratejudgment on the subject, they are a remnant of Israel, arelic of the ten tribes carried into captivity by Shalmanezer, the King of Assyria. The investigations of thatAmerican gentleman were not limited to the plain of Ooroomeeya. In his double capacity of missionary and physician,he had enjoyed opportunities for inquiry among theNestorians in Amadia, among the independent tribes of thesame sect (for then at least they were independent) whodwell in the almost inaccessible fastnesses of the Koordistanmountains, at Tearee, Tokoobee, Joolamerk, &c. The conclusion he has reached has been derived from a variety ofcirc*mstances. They themselves maintain their claim tothis descent. The Jews of the same districts admit the justiceof this pretension. They both, Jews and Nestorians, speaknearly a similar dialect of a language derived from theancient Syriac. Dr. Grant asserts that the Nestorians stillretain much of the ceremonial of the old law. They offerthe sacrifice of peace-offerings, also first-fruits; the Sundayis strictly observed; their government is a theocracy, likethat of the Jews in relation to the High Priest; they detestpork as cordially as the recognised sons of Abraham; placesof refuge from blood are still retained, though in the formof churches instead of cities.

Dr. Grant estimates the total of the Kaldanee nation,Catholic17 and Nestorian, in Persia, Koordistan, and Turkey,at about 200,000 souls, and that those living in Koordistanare not much less than half that number. Of these, thenumber attached to the Church of Rome is comparativelyfew.

¹⁷ Dr. Grant says the word "Kaldanee," or "Chaldæan" is usuallyapplied to the Catholics of this tribe, while the others are calledNestorians. This is very contrary to my impression, which is, that thewhole nation is called Kaldanee, and the divisions are Nestorian andCatholic.

NOTE (F.). Page 256.
KHIVA.

Journey to Khiva: Moozderan – Serrekhs – Toorkoman horses – Merve – The desert – Services of crows – The oasis – Uzbek customs – Mode of extorting confession – Night visit to the Khan of Khiva – Statistics – Designs of Russia.

IN 1740 two Englishmen, named Thomson and Hogg, undertook, almost alone, a most enterprising journey fromAsiatic Russia, through the deserts of the Kirgheez, toKhiva. Their adventures are shortly described in JonasHanway. These are probably the first Englishmen whobeheld that Uzbek capital. Commerce, that unraveller ofcountries, led them to undertake this journey. They returned in safety. In 1819, Mouraview, now of course dubbedKarski, the hero, but not the real one, of Kars, made a journey from the Caspian to Khiva, of which he has written adescription. Then followed Abbott, Shakespeare, Conolly.The following note is taken from the journal of Mr.Thomson, secretary to Her Majesty's Legation in Persia,who went from Tehran to Khiva, thirteen years ago, underpeculiar circ*mstances, in the company of an Uzbek Elcheeto the Shah, who was returning to that country. More fortunate than poor Stoddart and Conolly in their expedition tothe rival Uzbek state of Bokhara, Mr. Thomson returnedin safety from his perilous undertaking. He had run theordeal of being at Khiva during the catastrophe at Cabul,and may be said to have had a wonderful escape. It wasonly his own dexterity, resolution, and knowledge of easterncharacter which saved him from the unhappy lot of hiscountrymen.

Here finishes the amusing narrative of Mr. Thomson.

For more than a century Russia has been aiming at thepossession of Khiva. Twice she has failed in attaining herobject by force, by open force. The next attempt will probably secure the prize. Dissension at Khiva, steamers onthe Aral and at the mouth of the Oxus, a fortress at theJaxartes, invite an attempt and promise success.

England has some concern with the establishment ofRussia in this principality. There she would be inexpugnable.She is within two hundred miles of the Caspian, aspace which, to minds accustomed to the vast distances ofAsia, is as nothing. A Persian soldier thinks little of amarch of one thousand miles from Azerbijan to Khorassan.Master of Khiva, the Russian government becomes supremeover the Toorkomans, and will find no insurmountable difficulty in establishing through the intervening level tract apermanent and available communication with the Caspiansea. The noble river Oxus, navigable to within a hundredmiles of Hindoo Koosh, becomes Russian, and is covered withRussian steamers. At his choice the Emperor can fix theboundary of his empire on that river, for who is there togainsay him? Khoolloom and Koondooz will doubtlessthen become the limits of the Russian dominions. Thetrade between India and those countries, now free and uncontrolled on the payment of not immoderate duties, fallsthen under the despotic rule of that government, and becomes subject to its protective and selfish commercial restrictions. Her near neighbourhood is not likely to strengthenour position in north-western India. And yet it seemsimpossible to avert these evils, or to prevent the downfallof Khiva, or its eventual occupation by Russia. Can nothinghowever be done to save the Oxus, to save at least the portion approximating to Afghanistan?

NOTE (G.). Page 258.
AFGHANISTAN.

Our conquest and defeat – Practicability of invasion of India – Necessary precautions – Importance of Candahar as a military position – Russian preparations for another war.

AFGHANISTAN cost the British nation–or what is, or oughtto be, the same thing, the government of India–sixteenmillions sterling. With a handful of men we achieved agreat conquest. We met with a reverse, a single reverse,for the repulse of small detachments is of no consideration,and we fled. If our discomfiture had been caused by thepower, the bravery, or the intelligence of our opponents,flight would have admitted of apology. But it was not so.The defeat we suffered arose solely from our ignorance andunparalleled disregard of every military rule and precaution. We acted at Cabul in our military arrangements ina manner that would be blameable and unsafe at Delhi;and this defeat sufficed to drive us in a panic from thereally important part of our conquest and scene of unvarying success–Candahar.

Which portion of our conduct is deserving of blame–the undertaking of this costly expedition, or the abandonment of a splendid conquest? The answer to this questionseems to rest on one point. Is the invasion of Indiapracticable by Russia? or, what is of equal importance, isshe able to make a dangerous demonstration in Afghanistan? If it be certain that this proposition admits of adistinct denial, then it must be conceded the expeditionwas needless; but if it be probable that a demonstrationof the nature alluded to be practicable, then it appears tobe almost equally incontestable that the relinquishment ofCandahar, above all, was an error.

Without undertaking to decide the large question atissue, I shall assume the feasibility of invasion to be established, and merely observe that now more than evershould we be on the watch, for the Russian and Indiandominions are twelve hundred miles nearer to each otherthan when the invasion of Afghanistan took place. Excluded from prosecuting her ambitious objects in otherquarters, revenge, the desire of retrieving her prestige, allconspire to urge Russia to the East. She will await thefavourable moment in patience, moving forward in themean while by the wiles she is reputed to understand sowell. On this occasion she has been opposed by four combatants; next time these conditions may be reversed. Letit not be forgotten that, when her railroads to Odessa andto Vladikafkaz are completed, her strength, particularlytowards the East, will be doubled.

What course ought we to pursue? Shall we imitate thepast, and cast foresight aside; or shall we take time by theforelock? Shall we meet the invader in Afghanistan, orshall we allow him to occupy that ground, and decide thecontest in India itself?

As matters now stand, established as we are in thePunjab and in Peshawar, the want of a position at Cabulcan hardly be viewed as a detriment. In spite of the advantages of Khiva and the Oxus, supposing both to be inthe possession of Russia, the defiles and passes of theHindoo Koosh, held, as they doubtless would be, bysoldiers like those of England, would be too formidableand too doubtful an experiment to venture on. The realinvasion, if it ever takes place, must be by Herat, although,no doubt, a diversion would be made by Khiva and theHindoo Koosh. In the improbable case of an English armybeing driven from those formidable positions, the assailanthas only done half his work. We know by woeful experience the difficulties he has to surmount before reachingthe Indus. The whole route, from the Oxus to the latterstream, is so full of obstacles, there can be no hesitationin coming to the conclusion that no large army will selectthis road. Burns uses the following words:–"The naturalstrength of Cabul is its best barrier against a successfulinvasion." Sir W. Nott's opinion is, that "Afghanistanfirmly held and well managed by us would be very valuableas a barrier."

Add to the foregoing considerations, that, if a considerable force were to sustain detention in that country, aswould certainly happen, it would incur serious risk ofperishing through starvation. Cabul is a country productive in fruit, but not in corn. Burns says of it, that"grain grows scantily," and that "fruit is more plentifulthan bread."

If these premises be correct, it must then, as before said,be through Herat and Candahar that an invasion is to beconducted. Candahar is therefore the grand strategicalpoint; for if Herat be the key of Afghanistan, Candahar isthe key of India. The former fortress is so distant fromthe British frontier, that we may dismiss any considerationof its occupation by an English force at the present day.

Jonas Hanway says, "the situation of Candahar rendersit a strong barrier between the empires of Persia and India."

The town of Candahar commands the three roads toIndia: that by Cabul, by Shikarpoor, and the sterile routesacross the Suleina range to Dera Ismaël Khan and DeraGhazee Khan, on the Indus.18

The above city is situated in the most fertile part ofAfghanistan, in plains abounding with wheat, barley, andother grains. Here it is practicable to provide for the subsistance of an army during a certain time. It should beour care to secure these resources from being available toan enemy.

Candahar is surrounded by the Dooranee tribes, who, ifleft to themselves, are more likely to join an invader thanto oppose him; but who, by being placed within the reachof control, may be converted into useful auxiliaries, or atall events rendered less hurtful.

The distance between Candahar and our outposts doesnot exceed 200 miles.19 If the abandonment of this positionis deserving of regret, its resumption should form an objectof early effort. Established here, we may almost set invasionat defiance. A Gumri, a Sebastopol, in this spot makes usparamount, for it will be an announcement to all the worldthat the determination to remain is irrevocable.

We shall suppose ourselves established at Candahar ina large and exceedingly strong fortress, whose reductionwould require a siege of several months at the least; andthen consider the position of an invading army. Under themost favourable circ*mstances its subsistence would demand care and preparation. With Candahar in our possession it may be conceived how the difficulty would beaugmented. The land, if necessary, could be laid waste ina greater or less degree, the grain removed, the flocks andherds driven off (our irregular cavalry is at least a matchfor Cossacks); a desert might enclose Candahar to any distance. We may conceive by what happened to our ownforces at Sebastopol, with an open sea in their rear, whatwould be the condition of an army undertaking a long siegein the midst of Afghanistan, in the face of all these obstacles. Shall we be told that the enemy would despise thisformidable fortress and large garrison, and advance to theIndus, leaving it in the rear? If the invaders bring withthem a Napoleon or a Hannibal they may dare such anexploit; but should they suffer a defeat, what becomes oftheir army?

Hanway says that in 1711 the Afghans destroyed a largePersian army besieging Candahar, by laying waste thecountry.

Or shall we await the enemy in India? There we cannot lay waste the country, remove the grain, or drive awaythe flocks and herds. The density of population prohibitssuch an idea. In any case, and above all, let not the contest be waged on Indian land.

Or shall it be said that we can always anticipate anenemy advancing into Afghanistan, and may therefore deferthat movement until the moment of danger? We may doso no doubt, but will it be contended that we and the invaders shall then be in the same relative position as beforesupposed?

If invasion be practicable, the best mode of preventingit is by preparation, and by surrounding it by such difficulties as will make the undertaking an act of desperation.It is conceived that the mode indicated is one of the meansof accomplishing this important object. Our taking up aformidable position at Candahar will go far to deter evenspeculation on the chances of invasion.

The cost of the plan offered for consideration, and thedrain on the already encumbered resources of India, deservereflection. Yet present expenditure is often real economy,of which the war we are now waging is a notable example.It seems to be a national vice to prefer the most lavishoutlay in prospect to present moderate disbursem*nt.Whatever tends to avert an attempt to wrest India fromour hands, and prevent the enormous consequent expenditure, is economy.

Should the day ever come for the realisation of thesespeculations, it is to be hoped we shall not renew our lavishexpenditure of gold in vain endeavours to allay discontent.Bribery has the contrary effect. It stimulates instead ofsoothing, for all cannot be bribed. Let us rule with allthe honesty and justice that despotism admits of, pardoninganything excepting insurrection, and making no unsparinguse of disarmament and expatriation.

Other considerations might be urged in favour of theviews here advocated; but it is not expedient to alludemore particularly to them here; and they are, moreover,not hidden under an impenetrable veil to any one whochooses to reflect on the subject.

Russia may be said to have already announced that sheis even now preparing for her next encounter with GreatBritain. Her railways have no other end than to transporttroops. She found that in the last struggle her weaknesslay in the impossibility of collecting her forces at the propermoment on the distant points of her empire. This weaknessshe has intimated shall disappear. But we too will notremain idle. Our railways in India will advance as wellas those of Russia. Established and prepared in Candahar,with a railway running the whole length of the left bank ofthe Indus, we may await any attempt in calmness. TheRussian grenadier now knows his inferiority to the Englishsoldier. The Cossack will find a match in the Hindoostaneehorseman.

¹⁸ There is a mountain road from Herat to Cabul, but it is describedto be impassable for guns, and to be through a thinly inhabited country,consequently to be deficient in food.

¹⁹ It is assumed that Dader and Kelat are our frontier stations.

NOTE (H.). Page 270.
SILK MANUFACTURE OF PERSIA.

Importance to Persia of her silk manufacture – Silk-trade of Geelan –Importations from England – Province of Geelan – Gipsies.

SILK is the great staple of Persian commerce, particularlyof foreign traffic, which enables it to pay for a portion ofits importations from abroad. For though horses, dry fruit,and drugs are sent to India; sheep, silk, cotton, andwoollen manufactures to Constantinople and other parts ofTurkey; and grain, silk, and cotton goods to Russia, theamount is too insignificant to admit of payment for herextensive importations excepting by means of the preciousmetals. Fortunately a large proportion of her silk is consumed in Russia, who, possessing few manufactures or otherproductions necessary to Persia, is compelled to pay chieflyin gold for her importations thence. Were it not for thiscirc*mstance, it seems inconceivable how the commerce ofPersia could be maintained, or how she could be savedfrom a dearth of metallic currency. Even with this aidfrom Russia it is supposed that gold is yearly diminishing,and that the time must come when the commerce of Persiawith Europe will nearly cease. It might be conjecturedthat this circ*mstance would have already led to its gradual decrease. But this does not seem to have happened.The consumption in quantity of European manufactureshas even of late somewhat augmented, remunerationbeing obtained by the importer by a great deterioration inquality. This change produced an amusing example ofPersian ideas on free trade. A few years ago, when thechintz brought from England was absolutely worthlessboth in texture and colours, the Persian merchants ofTabreez sent a petition to the Shah that he should remonstrate with the British Government, in order that themanufacturers and merchants of England should be prohibited from supplying the market with such miserablegoods.

The silk of Geelan is of inferior quality, and is thereforelittle adapted to the markets of France, England, or Italy.Attempts to produce an improvement have been made byEnglish merchants, though with little success. Suspicionof the intention in offering advice, apathy, and an aversionto deviate from routine, are the chief obstacles to amendment. It is in the winding chiefly that change is required;the skein is too long, and the thread is uneven and knotty.This supineness is deeply to be regretted, for if Persiacould supply good silk the profit to her and to Englandwould be great. We would take any supply she couldproduce, and in return she would consume a much largerquantity of our chintzes and woollen manufactures. Thusthe unceasing drain of gold from Persia would find aremedy.

Still it is believed that the silk-trade of Geelan isimproving, though stationary as far as England is concerned. The cultivation of the mulberry is becoming moreextended, and encroachment is annually made on the thickforest for the purpose of planting that tree. Twelve yearsago the quantity produced was more than a million ofpounds in weight, the value of which, on the spot, was morethan 450,000l. The duty paid to Government was above10,000l., being at the rate of 5 per cent. by foreigners, and2 1/2 by Persians. To the above quantity of reeled silk isto be added a certain portion carried out of the provincewithout payment of duty. Further is to be added a considerable share of waste silk, estimated to be not far shortof the quantity of wound silk, though of course greatlyinferior in value. The total value of the silk produced inthe province ascends, therefore, to a sum not much lessthan 600,000l. This is a considerable amount for one ofthe smallest provinces of Persia, of which a large portionof the surface is rice-marsh, swamp, forest, and mountain,on which the mulberry-tree is not cultivated.

The value of the province of Geelan is further enhancedby its fisheries of sturgeon, salmon, and other fish, fromwhich, however, the Government does not derive an advantage at all equivalent to their value. As before said, thesturgeon-fisheries are in the hands of Russians, who exportthe sturgeon to their own country.

That this province should have been long coveted byRussia is not surprising. Everything contributes to makeit a desirable possession: its situation relative to Russia,its wealth and improvable qualities, its defensible position,mountains on one side, the sea on the other, swamps andjungles all over the province. Its importance to Persia isequally obvious, yet no precautions are taken for its preservation or improvement. Everything is left to chance,and to that sovereign Persian remedy for all evils, past,present, and to come, Inshallah.

In Mazenderan and almost every part of Persia, silk isproduced, though not in quantities at all approaching toits cultivation in Geelan. The Persians have acquired greatdexterity in its manufacture. Almost all the various kindsfound in Europe are prepared in Persia, but of much inferior gloss and finish, such as satins, sarcenet, brocades,velvets, plain and every kind of striped silk, and allexceedingly strong and durable, with brilliant colours.They display equal ability in the combination of silk andcotton. A garment composed purely of silk is "unlawful"in the Mussulman creed, a dogma rarely attended to bywomen, especially under the temptation of the silks ofFrance and England;20 the men are more devout. On thisaccount a large quantity of silk and cotton stuffs is manufactured; and for the same reason the Irish manufactureof silk and wool, called tabinet, or poplin, is in highestimation.

It was at one time imagined that Persia took from England, by the way of Trebizond alone, manufactured goodsto the value of a million sterling. Longer experience hasrectified this estimate, and reduced it to something exceeding half this sum. In the present state of Persia it isinconceivable by what means she could pay for this largequantity of merchandize. The want of river for transport,and of roads for wheeled vehicles, and the consequent costof conveying goods from a long distance, exclude the possibility of reimbursem*nt by means of her productions intheir present state. The only explanation is to be found inthe supposition that a share of these English importationsfinds its way to Russia, and that payment is made in gold.

Geelan resembles Bengal in its damp climate, its swamps,and jungles. Like Bengal, too, the food of the inhabitantsis principally rice, besides fish, with which the sea, lakes,and rivers swarm. Bread is procurable only in towns.The woods abound in game, particularly pheasants andwoodco*cks. Like the Bengalees, too, and owing probablyto the same cause, an unwholesome climate, the inhabitantsof Geelan are indolent in mind and feeble in body. On thisaccount several thousands of labourers from the other partsof Persia proceed thither annually, but who, on the approach of the deadly heats of summer, retire from theprovince. There may be said to be only one city in Geelan,that of Resht. It is altogether unlike a Persian town,being neat and clean, and, instead of dingy walls of unbaked brick, the houses are. constructed of kiln-baked redbricks, with wide projecting roofs covered with tiles. Thecity of Resht is some miles from the sea, and is well protected by jungles and by the most abominable roads conceivable. The Government studiously avoids any improvement of the roads of the province, wisely considering that,coupled with its swamps and jungles, their present stateis one of its best defences, Though inferior in militaryqualities to the inhabitants of Mazenderan, the natives ofGeelan form good irregular troops in their own jungles.

Gipsies are found in all parts of Persia, but in Geelanthey are more numerous than elsewhere. They preservethe characteristics of their race throughout the world.Fortune-telling is the occupation of the women. They livein little camps, formed of miserable tents, in which theymigrate from the hot to the cold country, according to theseason. The donkey is their companion, as in England,and his master is the professional mender of pots andkettles. In features and habits they differ but little fromtheir brethren in the West, and, like them, they have preserved in their language the traces of their Hindoostaneeorigin. In Persian they are called Kaoolee, which wordis supposed to denote a connection with an origin fromCabul.

²⁰ The above term implies, that in reciting the prescribed number ofprayers, if the dress is composed of unmixed silk the value of theprayers is annulled.

NOTE ON THE PERSIAN ARMY.

Origin of the Persian regular army – English influence – Attempted reform – Character of the soldier – The officers – The artillery – The infantry – The cavalry.

IT is to the military genius of the French that we areindebted for the formation of the Indian army. Our warlikeneighbours were the first to introduce into India the systemof drilling native troops and converting them into a regularly disciplined force. Their example was copied by us,and the result is what we now behold.

The French carried to Persia the same military andadministrative faculties, and established the origin of thepresent Persian regular army, as it is styled. When Napoleon the Great resolved to take Persia under his auspices,he despatched several officers of superior intelligence to thatcountry with the mission of General Gardanne in 1808.Those gentlemen commenced their operations in the provinces of Azerbijan and Kermanshah, and it is said withconsiderable success. English influence becoming supreme,and the French Mission having quitted Persia, it was determined to accede to the wishes of the Persian Governmentand continue the same military organization. Sir JohnMalcolm was accompanied in 1808 by two officers of theIndian army, Major Christie and Lieutenant Lindsay, towhom was confided this duty: they did it well. MajorChristie was a man of considerable military endowments;he undertook the charge of the infantry, and was killed athis post at the battle of Aslandooz in 1812. His able successor was Major Hart, ofthe Royal Army. Under theauspices and indefatigable cooperation of Abbas Meerza,heir apparent to the throne of Persia, by whom absoluteauthority was confided to him, he brought the infantry ofAzerbijan to a wonderful state of perfection. The artillerywas placed under Lieutenant Lindsay, afterwards Major-General Sir H. Lindsay.21 This officer acquired extraordinary influence in the army, and in particular among theartillery. He brought this branch of the forces in Azerbijanto such a pitch of real working perfection, and introducedso complete a system of esprit do corps, that to this day hisname is venerated, and traces of his instruction still survivein the artillery of that province, which even now preservessome degree of efficiency.

After the last Russian war an attempt was made toreform the Persian army and revive its discipline. A detachment of officers and serjeants was sent for this purposefrom the Indian army, besides an officer of the Rifle Brigade with some serjeants from home. The attempt did notsucceed. After aiding in placing Mahommed Shah on thethrone, distrust towards these officers took the place offormer confidence. Then came the jealousies betweenEngland and Persia relative to Afghanistan, next the rupture of relations and the removal of the detachment fromPersia, whither it has never returned. The successors tothese English officers were a body of French military men,whose efforts were a complete failure, though it cannot beaffirmed that the fault is attributable to them. At presentthe instruction of the Persian army is in the hands of a partyof Italian officers, refugees from Naples and Venice, and ofa few Hungarian and German officers, lent by Austria tothe Shah. These gentlemen certainly render service withintheir sphere and to the extent of their influence, both ofwhich are restrained to narrow bounds.

Mr. Morier, after an eulogy on the qualities of Persiansoldiers of the regular army in various points, finishes by saying "they are greatly deficient in the soldier's first art,the art of dying." In this sarcasm Mr. Morier seems to me,to have done great injustice to the profession of arms inPersia. No irregular troops, whether they be native Persians,or Koords, Arabs, Afghans, Toorkomans, or Turks,are able to contend with the disciplined Persian forces.22The Nizam of Persia and Turkey have never yet met; butin the last contest between these two nations, three or fourthousand Persians of the regular army put to flight thirtyor forty thousand Turks at Toprak Kalla, between Bayazeedand Erzeroom.

The Persian soldier is active, energetic, and robust, withimmense power of enduring fatigue, privation, and exposure.He is full of intelligence, and seems to have a naturalaptitude for a military life. Half clothed, half fed, andnot even half paid, he will make marches of twenty-fourmiles day after day, and when need be he will extendthem to forty miles. He bears cold and heat with equalfortitude; but in the latter case, without abundance ofwater, he is soon overcome. Unlike a sombre apatheticOsmanli, who, brave as he is, hates the regular military service, the Persian soldier is full of life and cheerfulness.Somewhat addicted to turbulence, he nevertheless alwaysdisplayed the most complete submission to his Englishcommanders, for whom he has ever had a special veneration.A most determined marauder, he sometimes enlists in thehope of plunder; this occurs particularly in Azerbijan. Itis curious to see him returning from a campaign, himself andhis faithful ass loaded with all sorts of household furniture,which they have brought perhaps from a distance of athousand miles.

The unfortunate soldiers are enlisted for life, and generally by compulsion. They are drawn almost entirely fromthe wandering eelyats of Toork and Lek tribes, and fromthe ordinary peasantry. The eelyats have the reputationof being the best soldiers, though, in my opinion, undeservedly. The best regiments are those composed of theabove classes indiscriminately. A pernicious habit hasbeen introduced of organizing regiments in tribes, by whichmeans clannish feelings have been nurtured, and in suchcases, collisions between rival septs and regiments require tobe guarded against.

As before said, the flower of the Persian army is drawnfrom Azerbijan. Less compulsion is necessary to obtainrecruits in that province than in any other part of the kingdom. The eelyats of Kermanshah have also a high reputation, and, above all, the regiments from the two famousLek tribes of Kelhor and Goorān, which were at one timecommanded by Sir Henry Rawlinson. I have seldom seenfiner-looking soldiers than those of Kelhor.

As the Persian soldier is good, so the officers are thereverse. Excepting those of the artillery and the few nowremaining who have undergone English instruction, theyare worthless. Favour and bribery are the groundwork ofpromotion. A person who has passed forty or fifty yearsof life in pursuits wholly unmilitary is suddenly metamorphosed into a full colonel or brigadier, occasionally intoa general, or even into a commander-in-chief. The otherranks are filled in much the same manner. In the triberegiments the position in the clan establishes the rank in theregiment.

The artillery amounts to about 6000 men, of whom nearlyhalf are from Azerbijan. The last-named body is incomparably the best corps in the service, still preserving thetraces of Lindsay Sahib. They are soldierly, active, workmanlike fellows, who take their guns anywhere. They areall mounted, it being the practice to station upwards of30 men to each gun, who are to defend as well as fight it.I remember on one occasion seeing 30 guns moving out ofcamp on some expedition, accompanied by a battalion of800 men. A Russian general looking on expressed hisamazement that so many pieces of artillery should have so fewinfantry for their defence. He was not aware that in Persiait is the artillery that is expected to defend the infantry.

It is to the English nation that the Persian Governmentis indebted for all its materials of war. Under the instruction of English artificers, a foundry was establishedat Tabreez, where guns and shot of every description werecast, gun-carriages were built, musket-ammunition prepared,harness worked; and outside the town an efficient powder-mill was constructed, where good service-powder is manufactured at the cost of fourpence a pound. These warlikeappurtenances were transferred to Tehran, where they stillare in operation.

The regular infantry is nominally rated at more than100,000 men; but what with false returns, incompleteregiments, and men on leave who never return, the numberdoes not in reality exceed 70,000. Of the above number,no less than 25,000 are taken from the martial province ofAzerbijan.

Internal discipline may be said to have no existence inthe Persian army; parade discipline does not extend muchbeyond the knowledge of getting from column into line, andthe reverse, with some awkward attempts at the formationof a square.

All these troops are armed with flint muskets and bayonets, chiefly English. The greater part of these arms maybe pronounced to be in an inefficient state. The men areclothed in blue linen jackets supplied by the state, underwhich in cold weather their own clothes are crammed: largewhite cotton trousers and lapcheens, a sort of soft leatherbuskin which laces halfway up the leg and is admirablyadapted for marching in dry weather, complete their dress.The Toork soldier wears on his head the ordinary lambskincap; the Leks wear brown nemed or felt caps. Knapsacksare not carried in the Persian army; thirty asses per company are the substitute for that article. Tents are allowedto the regiments.

Persia has preceded Turkey in introducing Christians intoher army. For several years there has been a regiment ofNestorian Christians of Ooroomeeya in the Shah's service.Many among them are Armenians, notwithstanding the totalabsence of military qualities in that race.

The nations of the East are thoroughly satisfied of thesuperiority of regular infantry. Many years ago, whentravelling in Koordistan, I passed through the Koordishprincipality of Suleimaneeya. The chief had raised a bodyof 200 infantry from his tribe, armed with muskets. Hewas very proud of these "regular troops," as he called them.He boasted of an action he had just fought with a rival tribe,in which his infantry had fired a volley and killed a numberof the enemy while making a charge. He treated withcontempt the idea of regular cavalry. No brave horseman,this chief said, would submit to be so controlled.

The pay of a private soldier is 7 tomans or about 31. 10s.a year, besides a ration of about 3 1/4 lbs. of bread daily. Abattalion of 850 privates is estimated to cost about 15, 000 tomans or 7500l. annually; but from the incompleteness ofthe regiments, the real expenditure is much less.

The cavalry of Persia is a numerous body, and, in fact,its numbers are dependent only on the means of payment.

The regular cavalry consists of 500 hussars, supposed tobe like the Hungarian troops of the same kind. They arean absurd useless body.

The Shah's body-guard of irregular cavalry consists of2500 men. They are well mounted and armed, and excellenthorsem*n.

The irregular cavalry is raised almost entirely among thetribes. Azerbijan supplies 6000 of these horsem*n.

Since the introduction of Nizam, or disciplined troops, thePersian cavalry has lost the reputation it formerly held,Fetteh Ali Shah broke down the tribe system as much as layin his power, by which means, if internal tranquillity wasbetter secured, the power of resisting foreign aggression wasproportionally diminished. The breed of horses has beenthereby deteriorated, the great khans of the eelyats havedisappeared, and with them the numerous studs which theymaintained.

If the Persian cavalry has fallen from its ancient fame, itis nevertheless considered more than a match for Turkishtroops of the same description, and fully equal to the Cossacks of the Russian army. I have heard that in the lastwar the Persian horse never shunned an encounter with theCossacks, above all with those of the Don, though they werewholly incapable of contending with Russian dragoons.

²¹ After having attained the rank of Major-General, and the dignity ofBaronet for his services in Persia, Sir Henry Bethune returned to thatcountry for the third time a few years ago. More than forty years hadpassed since he first went to Persia. The Persian Government wouldgladly have accepted of his service, and probably would have placedhim at the head of the army, but he died in Tehran a few mouths afterhis arrival. The Persian Government showed every possible respect tohis memory.

²² Whoever reads the History of the Wars of Nadir will form adifferent estimate of the Persian soldier from the above excellent writer.

NOTE ON THE PERSIAN REVENUE.

Low state of the revenue of Persia – System of the late Shah – Taxes – Expenditure – Revenue from the principal provinces – Cultivation of land – Causes of the decline of Persia.

THE sinews of war are on an exceedingly low scale inPersia. Extensive as are the Shah's dominions, equal tonearly twice the size of France, his income is less than thatof the smallest kingdom in Europe. At the first view of itsamount, one is surprised at the success of that Governmentin maintaining a regal state, not only in the capital, butalso its semblance in the chief provinces. An army of150,000 men would seem to be far beyond its powers, exclusive of demands in the shape of pensions, the clericalestablishment, the overwhelming offspring of the Shah'sgreat-grandfather, and a variety of other heavy items ofexpenditure. The scarcity of money, and consequentcheapness of labour, food, and of all native productions,afford the only explanation of this problem. The expenditure of the late Shah far exceeded his income. It was totally out of his Majesty's Power to borrow money from hisown subjects; one unfortunate merchant at Tabreez havinglent him 30,000 tomans at a moment of great need, he beingthen a claimant for the crown, his Majesty forgot to repaythe debt when he mounted the throne. Persia has no standingin the loan-market, so the Shah had recourse to a species ofbank-note system. He issued berāts or bills on the provincial treasuries in payment of his army, his servants, andother creditors. But as the issues of berāts exceeded tenfold the amount of the revenue, none but a favoured few,or those who bribed highly, received payment; and hisMajesty's credit underwent a rude shock. The berātsvaried in value, according to the position of the holder,from zero to par. The latter was its worth when held bya European consul in favour of one of his trading countrymen; the former when the payee was a friendless Persian.This system was a mine of wealth to the provincial governors. They bought the bills from the payees, who werein general happy to receive 10 or 20 per cent. of theiramount, and charged them to the Shah at the full sum inthe accounts of the disbursem*nts of their province. Whenthe late king died, all the outstanding bills were declarednull and void, a step which greatly relieved the Persianexchequer. His present Majesty has made a fresh start onthe road of probity. Economy is cultivated, the soldiersand servants are paid, and efforts are made to restrain theexpenditure within the limits of the income of the state.

The principal source of the revenue of Persia is derivedfrom the land-tax. The rate is not uniform, different assessments having been made at various periods, more or lessremote, since which time great changes have taken place inthe lands assessed. The average is supposed to be about20 per cent. on the gross produce, although in some districts it amounts to even 30. Besides this impost there aretaxes on gardens, vineyards, shops, melon, cotton, rice, andtobacco grounds, sheep, asses, buffaloes, bullocks, camels,wells, kanāts, mills, which vary in the different provincesand even districts, not only in amount but in the nature ofthe object taxed. In one province there is a poll-tax formales above fourteen years of age, which in another provinceis substituted by a house, or, as it is called, a door-tax, andagain in another neither of these imposts is levied. Inmany districts no revenue whatever is levied, the land beingheld free on a sort of feudal tenure in requital of militaryservice; in general the tent-dwelling eels pay no tax onland, the quantity cultivated by those tribes being small.Another and considerable source of exemption from taxationis land which has been made wakf, that is, dedicated toreligious purposes, such as land attached to mosques.

Altogether the system is not free from complication, andrequires all the ingenuity of the Persian Chancellor of theExchequer to unravel it.

It is conjectured that through the extortions of governorsand their subordinates, chiefs of districts, villages, mohessils, or tax-gatherers, the ryots pay double the amount oftheir assessments, no part of which excess reaches the Shah'streasury.

The revenue is paid part in money and part in kind, consisting of wheat, barley, rice, chaff, or chopped straw.

To make the following statements intelligible, it is necessary to explain that a toman is roughly estimated at aboutten shillings sterling, and that a kherwar is equal to 650 lbs.,or 6 cwt.

Four years ago the total revenue in money amounted to2,677,000 tomans.

The income produced by wheat and barley reached245,237 kherwars, which is rated, on an average, at 2 tomans a kherwar. It is sometimes compounded for in money,but not generally.

Rice produced 4487 kherwars, at the average valuation of2 tomans a kherwar.

Chaff for horses amounted to 10,895 kherwars, which isvalued at 3 kerans, or shillings, each kherwar.

The grain not compounded for in money is generallyexpended in rations to soldiers, provisioning the Shah'scamp, and so forth.

If the value of the revenue paid in kind be estimatedin money, it amounts to something more than 500,000 tomans, which would make the total revenue of Persia ascendto about 3,177,000 tomans, or 1,588,000l.

Of this amount, no less a sum than 800,000 tomans isexpended at the capital in salaries and allowances to themembers of the different departments of the state and theirsubordinates, and to the other public servants, exclusive ofthe army. The following are a few of these items, whichin the public accounts are classed as amelajāt:–

I omit any mention of attendants and expenses connected with the Shah's own person for the maintenance of regal state; but I may mention that in proportion to the resources of Persia the expenditure is considerable.

To all the above receivers of salaries a certain portion of grain is also allotted.

The total expenditure from the net revenue of 2,677,000 tomans is summed up in the following manner:–

The balance, when there is any, is spent in various uncertain expenses, such as diamond-hilted swords, decorations, extraordinary military expenses caused by insurrection, &c.

The following is a statement of the revenue of the principal provinces of Persia, and will serve to show their comparative value. It is derived from an authentic source, as authentic, at least, as a Persian authority can be considered, and contains probably an approximation to the truth. The amount of revenue collected in grain is omitted, as being of less interest:–

As the culture of land is the main prop of the PersianGovernment, it may not be irrelevant to state in connectionwith the revenue the manner in which cultivation is conducted, and the relation between landlord and tenant.There is no "fixity of tenure" in Persia established by law,though it exists, to the fullest extent in the only way itought to exist, the mutual benefit of the landlord and thetenant, and also by custom, which is nearly equivalent tolaw. In a thinly-peopled country like Persia, it is the interest of the landlord to conciliate his tenants and perpetuatetheir residence on his property. A landowner seldom farmshis own estate; he generally lets it to tenants, or, morestrictly speaking, a partnership is established between thelatter and the landlord. The conditions of their compact,and the division of the produce, vary according to circ*mstances and to the capital contributed by each. When theproprietor furnishes all the capital–the soil, the seed, thebullocks, ploughs, and water–the gross produce is in general, for there are variations in the different provinces,divided in the following manner:–Out of 100 shares theGovernment takes 20, and the remaining 80 are dividedequally by the landlord and his tenant. In Ooroomeeya thelandlord takes 10 shares besides, leaving 70 shares fordivision. When the tenant contributes bullocks and ploughs,as often happens, or seed, which he occasionally does, hisshare is, of course, large in proportion.

Landlords treat their tenants well, which it is obviouslytheir interest to do. It is from teeool-holders, mohessils, andirregular arbitrary taxation, that the peasantry suffer vexation and extortion. A teeool-holder is a person who receiveshis salary by an assignment on the assessment of a village.Having no interest in its prosperity, his only care is toexact all he can from the ryots. A mohessil is a tax-gatherer.

The following extracts of a letter, addressed by me to aperson of distinction in Persia, exhibits some of the evils ofPersian administration:–

²³ Seoorsat means provisions supplied at villages nominally on accountof government to certain travellers, such as elchees, governors, publicservants, government messengers, &c.

NOTE ON TRIBES.

Tribes and races – Leks and Koords – Arabs – Decline of the tribe system – Enumeration of tribes.

PERSIA is overrun with tribes. If both the wanderingand the stationary clans be taken into calculation, it maybe questioned if the eels do not equal in number the otherportion of the inhabitants of that country.

The tribes are divided into three races–Toorks, Leks, and Arabs. Thefirst are the invaders from Toorkistan,who, from time immemorial, have established themselvesin Persia, and who still preserve their language. The Leksform the clans of genuine Persian blood, such as the Loors,Bekhtiarees, &c. To them might be added the Koords, asmembers of the Persian family; but their numbers in thedominions of the Shah are comparatively few, the greaterpart of that widely-spread people being attached to Turkey.Collectively the Koords are so numerous that they mightbe regarded as a nation divided into distinct tribes.

Who are the Leks, and who are the Koords? This inquiry I cannot solve. I never met any one in Persia, eithereel or moolla, who could give the least elucidation of thisquestion. All they could say was, that both these raceswere Foors e kadeem,–old Persians. They both speakdialects the greater part of which is Persian, bearing astrong resemblance to the colloquial language of the presentday, divested of its large Arabic mixture. These dialectsare not perfectly alike, though it is said that Leks andKoords are able to comprehend each other. One would bedisposed to consider them as belonging to the same stock,did they not both disavow the connection. A Lek will admit that a Koord, like himself, is an "old Persian," buthe denies that the families are identical, and a Koord viewsthe question in the same light.

The natives on the flat coast of the Persian Gulf arechiefly descendants of Arab settlers from the opposite shore,whose language they speak, but who cannot properly becalled eels. They are stationary communities on a greatlength of coast, bound together by the ordinary ties oflocality, race, and language. But in various parts of theinterior of Persia there are tribes who preserve the appellation. of Arab, derived, no doubt, from the Arabian conquerors, or from subsequent immigrants. These eels have,however, become complete Persians, and have preservedno trace of their origin either in language or appearance.

The tent-dwelling eel is to be recognised by his boldand manly air and his free and independent look. All thegreat robber tribes are Persian: not that the Toorks donot rob also, but among the former it is their trade, profession, and occupation. Thus the Loors, Bekhtiarees,Kakawends, Mamasenees, are Persian tribes and desperatemarauders. As before said, a Toork is to be distinguishedby his grave, manly, rugged air. The Lek is known by his wild, restless, ferocious look; I have heard them comparedto wild cats, and there is truth in the observation.

The habits engendered by a wandering life, living incommunities separated from the ordinary portion of thepopulation, and presided over by great nobles, whose commands, either for aggression against their neighbours orresistance to the law, were readily obeyed by the turbulent clansmen, are unfavourable to internal tranquillity.Thus, after the overthrow of the dynasty of the Seffees by the Afghans, each succession to the throne became the signal for convulsion. The great lords of theeelyats did their utmost to perpetuate a system whichsecured to them consideration, power, and independence.Fetteh Ali Shah was a luxurious monarch, but he was aman of penetration and sagacity who thoroughly understoodhis countrymen. All his energy was devoted to the overthrow of the tribe system, or, at least, to render it harmless.Many of the chiefs were put to death, others were broughtto court; some tribes were broken up and incorporated invarious clans, others were removed from their originalseats. The result has been that at this day, excepting thechief of the great tribe of Kashkaï, in Fars, and of Zaferanloo, in Khorassan, few of the chiefs or tribes are able to exercise a preponderating influence in the affairs of the country.

Now that regular armies and an overwhelming force inartillery are the order of the day, the tribe system is afailure, unless in supplying recruits, in which respect,however, the ordinary population is not inferior. Theeelyat horsem*n might be employed like the Cossacks,and, in an occupation so congenial to their nature, inproper hands they might be made as useful as those irregular troops, to whom they believe themselves fully amatch.

Among the Toork tribes Turkish is the prevailing language, to which they often add Persian. The Lek tribesspeak their own dialect, besides either Persian or Turkish,according to locality.

The following enumeration of tribes is derived from avariety of sources. As these sources are entirely Persian,there are, no doubt, many errors, and I am equally certainthat the enumeration of the clans is by no means exhausted.

The stationary eels are termed either Tāts, or TakhtehKāpoo; the latter term implies that their doors are made ofwood, that is, that they live in houses. They are alsotermed Deh nisheen, which means village-dwellers.

The cool summer residences of the tribes are calledYēlāk, the winter abodes are named Kishlak. They areTurkish words.

TRIBES OF AZERBIJAN.

Tribes in Mazenderan.

TRIBES OF TEHRAN, &c.

TRIBES OF KHEMSEH (a district between Tehran and Tabreez, of which the capital is Zenjan).

All the tribes of Khemseh live in houses in winter, thecold being severe. In summer they live in tents, and donot wander far.

TRIBES OF KERMAN.

TRIBES OF HAMADAN, MELLAYER, TOOSIRKAN, FERAHAN, &c., IN IRAK.

TRIBES OF FARS.

Tribes in Sheerat and the vicinity.

The enumeration of the Teerehs, or branches of the Kāshkāï and Mamasennee, is omitted as being tedious.

TRIBES OF BEHBIHAN AND KOHGILOOYA.

TRIBES OF LARISTAN.

KHORASSAN.
Toorbet e Sheikh Jam.

Toorbet Hydereeya.

Toorsheez district and town contains–

Kaën, name of district and town.

Serheddāt, meaning the tribes on the frontiers of Meshed.

My informant says that the Arab tribes in Khorassanspeak Arabic; still, I think, he must be in error.

TRIBES OF KERMANSHAH.

The above list of the tribes of Kermanshah is the one towhich I can least trust. The clans are so numerous inthat province that a Persian could hardly enumerate themwithout committing many errors.

The tribes in the district of Zohab are not included inthe above.

Looristan is divided into Great and Little Looristan. Theformer is inhabited by the large tribe of Bakhtiaree, containing many thousand tents and houses. There are twogreat branches of this clan, named Cheharleng and Heftleng, of which the subdivisions are numerous. The othertribes of Great Looristan are named Deenaranee and Janekee. All the tribes in Looristan are Leks.

The following are only a few of the tribes of LittleLooristan:–

Ardelan is a province on the west of Persia, inhabitedalmost exclusively by Koords, who during the last and thepresent reign have been completely reduced to subjection.

THE END.

LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET,AND CHARING CROSS.

²³ The tribes of Goorān and Kelhor are sometimes called Koords.My informant says, however, that they are positively Leks.

Footnotes have been numbered and grouped at the end of each section. No attempt has been made to standardize or modernize spelling or use of diacriticals.